Tajikistan’s capital Dushanbe was bustling with hectic regional political and diplomatic activities in mid-September. It hosted three back-to-back high-level meetings of prominent regional organisations the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) and ‘the SCO-CSTO Outreach Summit on Afghanistan’. As SCO Chair, Dushanbe hosted the 21st Heads of State Council meeting on 17 September 2021. It was the first SCO Summit held in a hybrid format.[1] Prime Minister of India Narendra Modi participated from New Delhi in virtual mode along with President Vladimir Putin of Russia and President XI Jinping of China from their respective countries, whereas Tajikistan’s President Emomali Rahmon hosted President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev of Kazakhstan, President Sadyr Japarov of Kyrgyzstan, President Shavkat Mirziyoyev of Uzbekistan, Prime Minister Imran Khan of Pakistan at the Navruz Palace in Dushanbe.
Although Turkmenistan – a Central Asian country, which is not a member of the SCO, its President Gurbanguli Berdimehmedov participated in person as a Guest of Honour at the Dushanbe meeting. Similarly, Iran’s President Ebrahim Raisi was present to attend the SCO meeting. It was his first overseas visit as President.[2] Belarus President Alexander Lukashenko attended the meeting as an Observer, while Mongolia (Observer) joined online. Notably, Afghanistan, which is an Observer and a regular participant, was not invited to the SCO event this time due to the political uncertainty in the country. UN Secretary General Antonio Guterres addressed the Summit participants through video conference. The heads of a number of regional organisations, including the Commonwealth of Independent States and Economic Cooperation Organization, also attended the meeting.[3]
External Affairs Minister Dr. S. Jaishankar participated in the Summit physically. He also called on President of Tajikistan and exchanged views on recent developments in Afghanistan and their impact on regional security. He met with his counterparts from Armenia, Belarus, China, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Iran and Uzbekistan and exchanged views on a range of issues. In a significant meeting with China’s Foreign Minister Wang Yi, he discussed disengagement at India-China border. He underlined that progress in this regard is essential for restoration of peace and tranquillity, which is the basis for development of bilateral ties. He added that India does not subscribe to any clash of civilisations theory, and for Asian solidarity it is for China and India to set an example.[4]
Dushanbe SCO Summit 2021
In a relatively short period of 20 years the SCO has emerged as an ‘authoritative’ regional organisation.[5] In the last two decades of SCO journey, which began from Shanghai in June 2001, Dushanbe has hosted the Heads of State Council meetings four times. The 2021 Dushanbe Summit of SCO is significant primarily from three perspectives: (i) Recent developments in Afghanistan as all its neighbours are somehow associated with the SCO, (ii) Expansion of the SCO with the inclusion of new a member and three dialogue partners, and (iii) SCO commemorating its 20th anniversary of establishment.
The leaders issued a joint declaration and signed 30 documents regarding SCO’s decisions, including on the approval of the 2021-2023 plan of joint measures aimed at overcoming the negative socio-economic consequences of the coronavirus pandemic, plan of interaction on international information security for 2022-2023, programme of cooperation on countering terrorism, separatism and extremism for 2022-2024, cooperation in the field of protection of cultural heritage sites, strategy for development of the SCO’s Interbank Consortium, and on the SCO ‘Green Belt’ programme.[6] The Green Belt programme aims greater implementation of resource-saving and environmentally clean technologies.[7]
From an institutional perspective, the Dushanbe meet is also significant because it discussed about formation of additional bodies within SCO, and for approving the SCO anthem, emblem and flag.[8] The anthem was played for the first time at Dushanbe,[9] and it has been composed by a Tajik national.[10]
SCO on Afghanistan Developments
Afghanistan was passing through a chaotic phase when SCO was formed in June 2001 by regional powers and in 20 years the organisation became strong and got powerful members. However, it is yet to devise a significant collective role in stabilising Afghanistan. In 2005 it had created a ‘Contact Group on Afghanistan’. Nevertheless, its activities remained suspended from 2009 to 2017, when it resumed its functioning.[11] Some SCO members initiated separate but regionally oriented measures aimed at bringing peace and stability in Afghanistan through negotiations in various formats, and by economic assistance and investments. The Contact Group held its fourth meeting of Foreign Ministers on 15 July 2021 at Dushanbe where organisation’s cooperation with Afghanistan in three areas were discussed: (i) security, (ii) economic, (iii) cultural-humanitarian, and the situation in Afghanistan and its effects on regional stability and development.[12] The situation has completely and unexpectedly changed since the Taliban’s takeover of Kabul in August 2021.
Afghanistan despite being an SCO Observer was not invited for the current Summit as the member countries do not recognise the new authority in Kabul. Prior to the Summit, Russia’s Special Presidential Envoy for SCO Affairs Bakhtiyer Khakimov in an interview said that it is the Chair’s prerogative to invite the guests and an invitation was sent to the then Afghan President Ashraf Ghani. He had added that at this stage “all member states have an understanding that there are no reasons for an invitation until there is a legitimate, generally recognised government in Afghanistan.”[13]
As early as in 2005, SCO had called to set a deadline for the presence of foreign forces in the region.[14] After the departure of foreign forces from Afghanistan, the SCO is still to spell out a concrete alternate plan for stability in Afghanistan. Due to the swift changes and prevailing condition in Afghanistan, there were expectations that SCO may take some decisions or measures in Dushanbe to deal with the implications. Nevertheless, it largely remained non-committal on the security, connectivity and economic developments of Afghanistan. The declaration stated that the members ‘support the emergence of Afghanistan as an independent, neutral, united, democratic and peaceful State, free of terrorism, war and drugs.’[15] SCO termed it ‘critical’ to have an inclusive Afghan government, with representatives from all ethnic, religious and political groups of Afghan society. It also urged international cooperation in return of Afghan refugees to their homeland.
The Summit host country Tajikistan has taken a stance on Taliban’s takeover of Kabul which is in variance with some other SCO members. A large number of ethnic Tajiks live in Afghanistan and their condition influences the government and sections of population in Tajikistan, which is evident in the statement given by Tajikistan President a few days prior to the Summit. He said that the Kabul government is not inclusive and legitimate. He demanded that the Tajiks of Afghanistan should have “a worthy place” in the future government of Afghanistan. He underlined that Dushanbe will not recognise any government that will be formed “through oppression”, without taking into account the position of the entire Afghan people, especially all its national minorities. Previously, Tajikistan had supported the anti-Taliban Northern Alliance. Tajikistan reiterated its stance on Taliban during the SCO Summit.[16] There is also anger among sections of people in Tajikistan over the role of Pakistan in Taliban’s takeover of Kabul. Reportedly, protesters and civil society groups in Tajikistan urged President Rahmon not to allow the Pakistan PM to participate in the event over alleged interference in Afghanistan.[17]
Seemingly, it will take some more time before the SCO countries evolve a common strategy for Afghanistan and draw a tangible economic and political roadmap to integrate the country with larger regional economic systems. National policies of some SCO countries towards Afghanistan make it difficult to find a common regional perspective of SCO towards Afghanistan.
Iran’s SCO Membership
Iran has been seeking SCO membership for many years. It became an Observer in 2005 along with India and Pakistan. The two South Asian countries subsequently started the accession process in 2015 and became full members of the organisation in 2017. Iran could not join SCO as a full member in the first expansion of the SCO in 2015 due to UN sanctions and consent not given by Tajikistan.[18] Since its formation, SCO has opened membership doors for the second time to include a new member from West Asia and simultaneously extending observer status to two countries from West Asia, namely, Saudi Arabia and Qatar, and Egypt from North Africa. The organisation now extends to West Asia by including Iran as a prospective full member. The latest entry of countries from the region suggests SCO’s geopolitical considerations about the sensitive West Asian region and a possible ‘balancing’ act.[19] On the other hand, SCO mechanisms provide regular interactions and it can be an effective platform in bridging the gaps among major countries in West Asia.
The SCO membership has potential economic opportunities for Iran as well as for the SCO member countries. Iran has vast deposits of hydrocarbons and its integration with big energy consumers and markets can help Tehran formulate long-term plans and contribute to the country’s economic stability and growth. Iran’s trade with the SCO was US$ 28 billion in 2019-2020.[20]
Iran significantly enriches the cultural dimension of the SCO. Addressing the Summit 2021, President of Iran highlighted Asia’s culture and said: ‘Asia is the cradle of human civilisation and its beating heart has been in China, India, Tajikistan and Iran.’ He further added that ‘Asian culture and civilisation have always been associated with harmony, patience, politeness, mutual respect and benevolence, and in a nutshell, wisdom and justice.’ He referred to problems faced by the world today and said that ‘the crisis of spirituality is the foundation of all crises in the world.’ He underlined that Iran can play an important role in ‘the development of cultural regionalism’.[21]
From the SCO’s perspective, Iran brings its economic and connectivity potential, technological advancement and energy wealth to the table. For the landlocked Central Asian members of the SCO, Iran provides an essential corridor to the Indian Ocean and the Caspian Sea, and South Caucasia. Iranian Chabahar port, which is being developed and built by India, could be an important gateway to Asia and the world. Further, the SCO members might be of the view that pressing regional issues can be better addressed if Iran is a full member of the organisation, for example in dealing with instability in Afghanistan, combating terrorism and drug trafficking or in pursuing regional economic integration. Iran can add to the SCO’s capacity to meaningfully respond to regional challenges.
Since 1979 Revolution, Iran has roused the motto of ‘neither East nor West’ and constantly resisted sanctions and isolation. Subsequently, it tried to convince the West with the signing of the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action, known as the nuclear deal, but the deal reportedly did not accrue the desired political and economic dividends. As the East is re-rising and global economic pivot is shifting, Tehran reaches out to economic powers in the region and their collectives. Iran concluded a preferential trade agreement with Eurasian Economic Union in 2018, allowing 862 commodity items to be traded under preferential tariffs.[22]
It is possibly the first time since the Islamic Revolution of 1979 that Iran is joining any major regional grouping as its full member.[23] Iran’s joining of the SCO also indicates its growing significance in the East. Iranian President termed the membership approval a ‘diplomatic success’ adding that one of the dimensions of the visit has been to implement the government’s foreign policy in the field of ‘economic diplomacy’ and ‘neighbourhood policy’.[24] Iran Foreign Minister Hossein Amir Abdollahian said this ‘strategic membership’ is to have a ‘significant impact’ on the process of Iran’s comprehensive cooperation in line with the neighbourhood and Asia-oriented policy.[25] The membership can be seen as a momentous development in Iran’s regional and international relations.
Initiatives at Dushanbe Summit
The Dushanbe Summit adopted a number of initiatives aimed at making the organisation more robust and readying it to meet the challenges in the region. The 2021 Summit will be considered significant in terms of expansion and growth of the organisation from within as well. Four new bodies, primarily focused on security were stated to be under SCO’s consideration for establishment: (i) A separate SCO Counter-Terrorism Centre in Dushanbe as a permanent body. (ii) The SCO Information Security Centre in Kazakhstan. (iii) The SCO Center against International Organized Crime in Kyrgyzstan. (iv). The SCO Universal Centre to Counter Challenges and Threats to Security located in Russia but within the SCO Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS), which is based in Tashkent.[26]
Peace and security situation in the region remain a major issue for SCO members. Combating terrorism in all its forms and manifestations, separatism, extremism, cross-border organised crime and illicit trafficking in drugs are among SCO's top priorities for ensuring regional security and stability. The SCO members said in the declaration that the global counter-terrorism struggle should include depriving terrorism of its social foundations, including by eliminating poverty, unemployment and illiteracy.[27] There is a need to enhance joint efforts to combat terrorism and its financing, containing the spread of terrorist, separatist and extremist ideologies. In his address PM Modi said that ‘the biggest challenges in this area are related to peace, security and trust-deficit and the root cause of these problems is increasing radicalisation.’[28] He emphasised that the Central Asia region has been a ‘bastion’ of moderate and progressive cultures and values, and on the basis of the region’s historical heritage, SCO should develop a common template to fight radicalisation and extremism. He added that in SCO countries, including India, there are moderate, tolerant and inclusive institutions and traditions associated with Islam. SCO should work to develop a strong network between them.
For enhancing energy and economic cooperation, important decisions were made. The SCO houses both the largest energy producers among the countries and also the largest energy consumers. In 2013, the SCO member states, observers and dialogue partners signed an MoU on the establishment of the SCO Energy Club. In the Dushanbe Summit, it was emphasized to increase mutually beneficial cooperation in the energy sector, including in renewable and alternative energy sources. Expansion of regional electricity interconnectivity among SCO members was highlighted. The SCO declaration suggested promoting ‘full-scale energy dialogue and practical cooperation among energy producing, transit and consuming states’. They have decided to establish a mechanism for the Meeting of Energy Ministers of SCO Member States. The Energy Ministers meeting is a significant development in increasing cooperation in the energy sector. In the renewable and alternative energy sector, the initiative of International Solar Alliance (ISA) can be a good platform for inter-organisational cooperation.
In order to promote cooperation among SCO members in industrial sector, which has huge potential in the region, a meeting of Industry Ministers was also announced. Industrial fairs and exhibitions will be organised to this effect and technological achievements will be introduced into production. The importance of exchange of experiences was highlighted, particularly to bridge the technological and digital divide between them.
Highlighting the significance of connectivity and vital role of Central Asia, it was said that the region’s prosperity is linked to its potential as a bridge between major markets. Mentioning that India is committed to increasing its connectivity with Central Asia, it was said that New Delhi is making investments in Chabahar port and developing the International North-South Transport Corridor. India believes that any initiative on connectivity cannot be a one-way street. It should be consultative, transparent and participatory to ensure mutual trust. In this regard, respect for the territorial integrity of all countries should be implicit. It was urged that based on these principles, SCO should develop suitable norms for connectivity projects in the region.[29]
SCO region is adversely impacted by the Covid-19 pandemic, including in economic and social terms. Tourism is severely restricted, including medical tourism, limiting people to people contacts. The SCO said that the consequences of this crisis have not been ‘fully overcome’ as many challenges persist that is adversely affecting the global economy. SCO urged greater coordination in crisis response, especially through cooperation in healthcare, sanitary and epidemiological welfare is acquiring special significance. Underlining the need for the introduction of new remotely controlled technologies, SCO urged cooperation in the tele-health area among members.[30]
India has effectively deployed technology on a wide scale in its fight against the coronavirus pandemic. PM Modi in his address to SCO offered to voluntarily share the open-source technologies of robust digital platforms like the Aarogya-Setu and COWIN applications.[31] India has shared these technologies with other countries. In order to promote financial inclusion in the region, India also offered to share its technologies like the UPI and Rupay Card with SCO countries.
Other Summits at Dushanbe
Tajikistan’s capital Dushanbe was also the summit venue of the Eurasia-focused regional security grouping the CSTO. Like SCO, Tajikistan headed the CSTO in 2020-2021 and its other members are Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Russia. The CSTO Summit was held on 16 September 2021, on the occasion of 30 years of the Collective Security Treaty and 20 years of the CSTO. In the meeting, the CSTO discussed current regional and global security issues. The situation in Afghanistan and its impact on the CSTO members’ security was considered as one of the most important issues.[32] The CSTO statement said that it is ‘closely monitoring’ the developments along the Tajik-Afghan border and its main objective is to ensure the security of the CSTO members. A number of large-scale ‘trainings of the CSTO Collective Forces’ will be held near the Tajik-Afghan border in a month. Tajik-Afghan border will be strengthened and the CSTO Collective Rapid Reaction Forces will be equipped with modern weapons, special equipment and facilities. A total 14 documents were signed at the CSTO Dushanbe meet.[33]
Apart from separate SCO and CSTO summits, Tajikistan also hosted a joint ‘SCO-CSTO Outreach Summit on Afghanistan’ on 17 September 2021, addressed by the leaders of the two organisations. The special meeting focused on the current situation in Afghanistan as instability and insecurity in that country remains a common concern. PM Modi addressed the joint summit and underlined that the greatest impact of the developments in Afghanistan will be on neighbouring countries. He highlighted the need to pay attention to four issues regarding Afghanistan: (i). Power transition in Afghanistan has been without negotiation and it is not an inclusive system in Kabul. Representation of all sections of Afghan society, including women and minorities, is important. The recognition of such a new system in Afghanistan should be decided collectively after due thought by the global community, especially the United Nations. (ii). Other extremist groups may get encouragement to seek power through violence. (iii). There could be increased flow of arms, drugs and human trafficking threatening regional stability. (iv). Humanitarian crisis in Afghanistan.
The PM said that India has been a ‘trusted partner’ of Afghanistan for many years in development and humanitarian assistance, adding that ‘even today, we are eager to deliver food items, medicines etc. to our Afghan friends.’ He called for a template of ‘strict and agreed norms’ to prevent Afghanistan from being used to spread terrorism in any country.[34] There should be a Code of Conduct to prevent activities like cross-border terrorism and terror financing along with a system of their enforcement.
Conclusion
Evidently, the primary themes of the SCO, CSTO and their combined summit meetings were the unexpected developments in Afghanistan and ways to prevent any fallout on the members of the two organisations. They deliberated to stabilise Afghanistan, prevent spread of radicalisation, and discussed about increasing the pace of economic development and enhancing regional cooperation in the pandemic situation. The SCO due to its diversified portfolio and presence of largest regional economies has the potential to play a significant regional role contributing to the peace and economic efforts in Afghanistan. There is a consensus among SCO members on the need to form an inclusive government in Kabul.
In the last two decades the SCO has gained strength and emerged as a significant regional organisation. It has increased its strengthened from within and expanded from outside covering a vast majority of humanity and geography. Entry of Iran in SCO can be a momentous development in Tehran’s regional and international relations. India welcomed the new member and dialogue partners in the group. The Dushanbe summit was successful in considering many initiatives aimed at promoting greater regional security, stability and economic development. The SCO will continue to play a vital role in the critical Eurasian region.
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* Dr Athar Zafar is a Senior Research Fellow at the Indian Council of World Affairs, New Delhi.
Disclaimer: The views are of the author.
Endnotes
[1] Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, “21st Meeting of SCO Council of Heads of State in Dushanbe, Tajikistan,” 15 September 2021, https://mea.gov.in/press-releases.htm?dtl/34261/21st_Meeting_of_SCO_Council_of_Heads_of_State_in_Dushanbe_Tajikistan, accessed on 17 September 2021
[2] صدف صمیمی, “رئیسی وارد دوشنبه پایتخت تاجیکستان شد”, ISNA, 16 September 2021, https://www.isna.ir/news/1400062518873/, accessed on 20 September 2021
[3] Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Turkmenistan, "President Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedov took part in the Summit of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization," https://www.mfa.gov.tm/en/news/2794, accessed on 18 September 2021
[4] ANI, “Jaishankar, Wang discuss disengagement; India says we must set example of Asian solidarity,” 17 September 2021, https://www.aninews.in/news/world/asia/jaishankar-wang-discuss-disengagement-india-says-we-must-set-example-of-asian-solidarity20210917013020/, accessed on 23 September 2021
[5] Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, “Dushanbe Declaration on the Twentieth Anniversary of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation,” 17 September 2021, https://mea.gov.in/bilateral-documents.htm?dtl/34275/Dushanbe_Declaration_on_the_Twentieth_Anniversary_of_the_Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation, accessed on 21 September 2021
[6] Asia-Plus, “As a result of the SCO summit, 30 documents were signed,” Place of Publication? 20 September 2021, https://www.asiaplustj.info/en/news/tajikistan/20210920/as-a-result-of-the-sco-summit-30-documents-were-signed, accessed on 24 September 2021
[7] Kazinform, “Kazakh Head of State hails signing of SCO’s ‘Green Belt’ program,” Place of Publication? 17 September 2021, https://lenta.inform.kz/en/kazakh-head-of-state-hails-signing-of-sco-s-green-belt-program_a3837787, accessed on 21 September 2021
[8] Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, “Dushanbe Declaration on the Twentieth Anniversary of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation,” Place of Publication? 17 September 2021, https://mea.gov.in/bilateral-documents.htm?dtl/34275/Dushanbe_Declaration_on_the_Twentieth_Anniversary_of_the_Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation, accessed on 21 September 2021
[9] Asia-Plus, “The SCO anthem sounded for the first time in history at the Dushanbe summit,” Place of Publication? 20 September 2021, https://www.asiaplustj.info/en/news/centralasia/20210920/the-sco-anthem-sounded-for-the-first-time-in-history-at-the-dushanbe-summit, accessed on 24 September 2021
[10] Avicenna Tajik State Medical University, " SCO anthem to be played in Dushanbe for the first time," 17 September 2021, http://www.tajmedun.tj/en/news/university/sco-anthem-to-be-played-in-dushanbe-for-the-first-time/, accessed on 25 September 2021
[11] Shanghai Cooperation Organization, "SCO-Afghanistan Contact Group held its third meeting with SCO participation in Вishkek," 19 April 2019, http://eng.sectsco.org/news/20190419/533099.html, accessed on 17 September 2021
[12] Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, "Afghanistan-SCO Contact Group Convenes 4th Meeting," 15 July 2021, https://www.mfa.gov.af/news/3254-afghanistan-sco-contact-group-meeting-convenes-4th-meeting.html, accessed on 19 September 2021
[13] Tass Russian News Agency, “Russian envoy confirms Afghan delegation won’t take part in SCO summit,” 9 September 2021, https://tass.com/politics/1335715, accessed on 21 September 2021
[14] Shanghai Cooperation Organization, "DECLARATION by the Heads of the Member States of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization," 5 July 2005, Astana, file:///C:/Users/Athar/Downloads/Declaration_by_the_heads_of_the_member_states_of_the_SCO.pdf, accessed on 20 September 2021
[15] Shanghai Cooperation Organization, “Dushanbe Declaration on the 20th Anniversary of the SCO,” 17 September 2021, http://eng.sectsco.org/news/20210917/782639.html, accessed on 21 September 2021
[16] Asia-Plust, "Emomali Rahmon called on the international community to provide assistance to the besieged Panjshir," 17 September 2021, https://asiaplustj.info/en/news/centralasia/20210917/emomali-rahmon-called-on-the-international-community-to-provide-assistance-to-the-besieged-panjshir, accessed on 20 September 2021
[17] Ateet Sharma, "Tajiks seek Imran's boycott at SCO summit after Panjshir bloodbath," Place of Publication? 11 September 2021, https://www.daijiworld.com/news/newsDisplay?newsID=872414, accessed on 19 September 2021
[18] Prof. Fan Hongda, “Will the upcoming SCO summit bring good news to Iran?, ” Tehran Times, 12 September 2021, https://www.tehrantimes.com/news/464973/Will-the-upcoming-SCO-summit-bring-good-news-to-Iran, accessed on 21 September 2021
[19] Maziar Motamedi, "What Iran’s membership of Shanghai Cooperation Organisation means," 19 September 2021, Al Jazeera, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/9/19/iran-shanghai-cooperation-organisation, accessed on 24 September 2021
[20] Tehran Times, “Iran’s annual trade with SCO members stand at $28b,” 17 September 2021, https://www.tehrantimes.com/news/465136/Iran-s-annual-trade-with-SCO-members-stand-at-28b, accessed on 18 September 2021
[21] President of Islamic Republic of Iran website, "President Raisi addressing 21st SCO Summit:," 17 September 2021, https://president.ir/en/131307, accessed on 26 September 2021
[22] Tehran Times, “‘Free trade with EAEU a good opportunity for Iran’,” 14 June 2021, https://www.tehrantimes.com/news/461962/Free-trade-with-EAEU-a-good-opportunity-for-Iran, accessed on 26 September 2021
[23] Maziar Motamedi, "What Iran’s membership of Shanghai Cooperation Organisation means," 19 September 2021, Al Jazeera, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/9/19/iran-shanghai-cooperation-organisation, accessed on 22 September 2021
[24] IRNA, " رییس جمهوری:عضویت دائم ایران در سازمان شانگهای یک موفقیت دیپلماتیک بود," 18 September 2021, www.irna.ir/news/84475606/, accessed on 23 September 2021
[25] ISNA, “امیرعبداللهیان: سند عضویت ایران در سازمان همکاری شانگهای تایید شد,” 17 September 2021, https://www.isna.ir/news/1400062619249/, accessed on 21 September 2021
[26] Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, “Dushanbe Declaration on the Twentieth Anniversary of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation,” 17 September 2021, https://mea.gov.in/bilateral-documents.htm?dtl/34275/Dushanbe_Declaration_on_the_Twentieth_Anniversary_of_the_Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation, accessed on 20 September 2021
[27] Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, “Dushanbe Declaration on the Twentieth Anniversary of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation,” 17 September 2021, https://mea.gov.in/bilateral-documents.htm?dtl/34275/Dushanbe_Declaration_on_the_Twentieth_Anniversary_of_the_Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation, accessed on 19 September 2021
[28] Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, “Prime Minister's Address at the Plenary Session of the 21st Meeting of SCO Council of Heads of State,” 17 September 2021, https://www.mea.gov.in/Speeches-Statements.htm?dtl/34274/Prime_Ministers_Address_at_the_Plenary_Session_of_the_21st_Meeting_of_SCO_Council_of_Heads_of_State, accessed on 20 September 2021
[29] Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, “Prime Minister's Address at the Plenary Session of the 21st Meeting of SCO Council of Heads of State,” 17 September 2021, https://www.mea.gov.in/Speeches-Statements.htm?dtl/34274/Prime_Ministers_Address_at_the_Plenary_Session_of_the_21st_Meeting_of_SCO_Council_of_Heads_of_State, accessed on 20 September 2021
[30] Shanghai Cooperation Organization, “Dushanbe Declaration on the 20th Anniversary of the SCO,” 17 September 2021, http://eng.sectsco.org/news/20210917/782639.html, accessed on 21 September 2021
[31] Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, “Prime Minister's Address at the Plenary Session of the 21st Meeting of SCO Council of Heads of State,” 17 September 2021, https://www.mea.gov.in/Speeches-Statements.htm?dtl/34274/Prime_Ministers_Address_at_the_Plenary_Session_of_the_21st_Meeting_of_SCO_Council_of_Heads_of_State, accessed on 20 September 2021
[32] Collective Security Treaty Organization, “On September 16, in Dushanbe, the Collective Security Council has discussed international and regional security problems and their impact on the security of CSTO member States,” 16 September 2021, https://en.odkb-csto.org/news/news_odkb/soobshchenie-dlya-smi-sovet-kollektivnoy-bezopasnosti-16-sentyabrya-v-dushanbe-obsudil-problemy-mezh/, accessed on 18 September 2021, accessed on 21 September 2021
[33] Tatyana Kudryavtseva, " CSTO summit in Dushanbe: 14 documents signed," 24.kg News Agency, 16 September 2021, https://24.kg/english/207357_CSTO_summit_in_Dushanbe_14_documents_signed/, accessed on 22 September 2021
[34] Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, “PM’s remarks for SCO-CSTO Outreach Summit on Afghanistan [17 September 2021],” 17 September 2021, https://www.mea.gov.in/Speeches-Statements.htm?dtl/34279/PMs_remarks_for_SCOCSTO_Outreach_Summit_on_Afghanistan_17_September_2021, accessed on 20 September 2021