Indian Council of World Affairs

Abstract: The India-Nepal MoU on Forests, Wildlife Conservation, Biodiversity Protection and Climate Change, signed in February 2026 marks a significant milestone in bilateral environmental cooperation. As the first comprehensive agreement of its kind, it establishes an institutionalised framework for transboundary biodiversity cooperation between the two countries. 

Introduction 

India and Nepal share an open 1,751 km long international border stretching across the Himalayan foothills and the Terai region. Consequently this border includes transboundary biodiversity and highly connected ecosystems between both countries. Wildlife and biodiversity survival thus depends on favourable climatic conditions and free cross border movement between states. While India and Nepal have cooperated extensively on issues such as border security, hydro power and migration, institutional cooperation on wildlife and biodiversity conservation has remained relatively limited. Biodiversity conservation is essential for both India and Nepal as they both share homes to some of the most vulnerable species like the greater one-horned Rhinos, Bengal Tigers, Asian Elephants, Gangetic Dolphins and Snow Leopards. This cannot be carried out independently by a country because the ecosystems are themselves transboundary in nature, calling for an institutionalised framework to conduct joint efforts to conserve biodiversity.       

In this context, a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) was signed between the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India with the Ministry of Forests and Environment, Government of Nepal to promote bilateral cooperation in the areas of forests, wildlife, environment, biodiversity conservation and climate change, in New Delhi on 25^th February,2026.[i] It is a first of its kind initiative between the two countries that reflects a growing need for collaborative actions to address transboundary environmental challenges. The MoU seeks “cooperation in formulation of biodiversity conservation strategies at the landscape level with emphasis on key species such as elephant, Gangetic dolphin, rhinoceros, snow leopard, tiger and vultures”[ii]. It also provides for strengthening forest and protected area management, restoring wildlife corridors and addressing biodiversity conservation threats, combating forest and wildlife crime, promoting smart green infrastructure and facilitating exchange of technical expertise and best practices.[iii]

Transboundary Biodiversity along Indo-Nepal Border

The Indo-Nepal Border is one of South Asia’s most extensive and ecologically significant transboundary ecosystems, home to several unique and endangered species. Although conservation efforts have been carried out by both countries independently, institutionalised bilateral cooperation has remained limited with only a few notable exceptions.

Asian Elephants

Asian Elephant is one of the most significant terrestrial animals of Asia, confined in 13 Asian countries including India and Nepal. Asian elephants are listed as Endangered under the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) red list of threatened species as its global population is declining owing to threats like loss of habitat, disrupted corridors, human- elephant conflict and poaching[iv]. India is home to approximately 30,000 elephants[v] whereas Nepal hosts an estimated population of 230 elephants,  with about 150 wild elephants traversing between Nepal and India regularly[vi] across 12 identified corridors. (Table 1). These movements underscore the ecological interdependence of the two countries and the importance of coordinated landscape governance, within the larger ambit of the Terai Arc Landscape.[vii]

Human Elephant Conflict has emerged to be one of the most prominent livelihood problems in the Indo-Nepal border. Due to the loss of habitats and connectivity, coupled with increased human settlements, these elephants come into conflict with people in both countries. Jhapa, Bardia, and Suklaphanta encounter the most wild elephant movement between Nepal and India.[viii] Herds consisting of 10-30 elephants regularly travel between Nepal and India.[ix] These elephant movements often result in destruction of crops and homes, loss of human life as well as livestock. However conservation agencies have worked with local communities to adopt electric fencing, early warning systems, watch towers and awareness programmes to reduce human-elephant conflicts[x]. There is need for greater involvement of local communities in conservation as many residents still view elephants as threats to livelihood.

Both India and Nepal have adopted unilateral measures for elephant conservation. India’s “Project Elephant”[xi] later supplemented by a national Framework for Elephant Conservation Plan which involved habitat connectivity, resolving human-elephant conflict and restoring corridors. With support from the Project Elephant, the Wildlife Trust of India (WTI) initiated “Right of Passage: Elephant Corridors of India” during the year 2005. The Right of Passage provided a comprehensive insight into elephant corridors across the four regional landscapes.[xii] Similarly Nepal has adopted Elephant Action Plan (2025-2035) which underlines similar objectives but particularly emphasises that Nepal’s elephant conservation cannot be possible without coordination and management of elephant populations and their corridors with India.[xiii]

Table 1. Major Transboundary Corridors, river systems, and landscapes connecting India and Nepal and the principal species they support

Top of Form

Bottom of Form

Source: Compiled by the author based on different available sources.

Greater One-Horned Rhinos

The greater one-horned Rhinos are the only large mammal species in Asia to be down-listed from endangered to vulnerable in the IUCN Red list in 2008[xiv], representing the successful conservation efforts by India and Nepal, though largely independent. The Terai Arc Landscape (TAL) connects the protected areas in Southern Nepal like Chitwan, Parsa and Bardia National parks with India’s Valmiki Tiger Reserve and Dudhwa National Park, providing for a shared ecological landscape for rhino mobility.[xv]

The Rhino population was close to extinction with less than 200 individuals in the beginning of the 20^th century.[xvi] By 2025, the combined population of the greater one-horned rhinos (Rhinoceros unicornis) in India and Nepal had increased to nearly 4,000.[xvii]

The main Rhino corridors are given above in Table 1. There also have been reports of rhinos migrating between Chitwan National Park and Valmiki Tiger Reserve.[xviii]Such reports underscore the importance of maintaining habitat connectivity rather than narrowing down rhino conservation to national boundaries.

The success of the Rhino conservation can be attributed to unilateral measures undertaken by both countries. The rhino is protected under the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act of 1973 in Nepal, which regulates hunting, poaching, and habitat destruction. Department of Forests and Soil Conservation (DoFSC), the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC), organizations like the National Trust for Nature Conservation (NTNC), WWF Nepal, and local communities also conduct rhino population censuses every 4 to 5 years.  Nepal also conducted its Five years' Conservation Action Plan(2017-2021) for the Greater One-horned Rhinoceros which showed remarkable success and the 2024-2034 plan is underway.[xix] Meanwhile in 2005, Government of India adopted the Indian Rhino Vision (IRV) 2020 program in partnership with WWF India and the International Rhino Foundation.[xx] Another positive move made by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India was adoption of a National Conservation Strategy for Rhinos during 2019.[xxi]

Local communities have also played an important role in the Rhino conservation success of Nepal and India. Initiatives in Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary have shown that conservation becomes more effective when locals actively participate in it. [xxii]

Still newer threats like habitat fragmentation, expanding infrastructure, illegal poaching, climate change continue to challenge rhino conservation. Reports of locals using electric traps to kill rhinos have been concerning and demand the need for more awareness and effective enforcement strategies.[xxiii]

Bengal Tigers

Among the species covered under the 2026 India-Nepal MoU, the Bengal Tigers are one of the most important ones which require transboundary conservation cooperation because of their large home ranges transcending borders. Thus habitat connectivity is absolutely necessary for sustaining tiger population as they require forest connectivity for dispersal and genetic exchange between populations [xxiv]India has doubled its tiger population to an estimated number of 3682 from the 2006 estimation of 1411 according to the All India Tiger Estimation[xxv]while Nepal became the first country to meet the global TX2 target of doubling tiger numbers to 355 in 2022[xxvi]. The TAL has emerged to be one of the most prominent tiger conservation landscapes. The prominent tiger corridors are given in Table 1 above.

India and Nepal have undertaken both independent and collaborative initiatives for tiger conservation. Among the initiatives taken by India include the Flagship conservation initiative “Project Tiger” launched in 1973 which played a crucial role in reviving tiger populations through strict protection mechanisms and dedicated reserves completing its 50 years in 2023[xxvii]. It also conducts the All India Tiger Estimation 2022, whose 5^th cycle declared India as the host of over 70% of the world's wild tiger population.[xxviii] The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) contributes efforts towards implementing science-based monitoring, habitat management, and anti-poaching strategies.  Nepal also conducted effective anti-poaching measures, habitat restoration, prey population recovery, expansion of national parks and establishment of wildlife corridors with India almost tripling its tiger population[xxix].This was done through a collaboration between its government and partners like WWF, and by active participation of communities living in tiger landscapes in conservation efforts like community based anti-poaching units. Forest restoration efforts have also helped to transform areas like the Khata Forest Conservation Area from 115 hectares to 3800 hectares wildlife corridor.

Organisations like IUCN Save Our Species(SOS) have introduced initiatives like “Integrated Tiger Habitat Conservation Programme”(ITHCP) which works at the intersection of 5 Indo-Nepal transboundary protected areas of Terai Arc Landscape and its buffer communities.[xxx]According to studies by the Zoological Society of London and ICIMOD, joint conservation initiatives like anti-poaching cooperation, collaborative research on tigers, corridor restoration, camera trap monitoring, SMART patrolling, Rapid response Networks etc have helped in maintaining habitat connectivity.[xxxi]

Gangetic Dolphins

Among the species mentioned under the 2026 MoU, Gangetic Dolphins are particularly important as they represent the need for transboundary ecological cooperation beyond just land. Gangetic Dolphins are functionally blind and only inhabit  fresh water, making them especially vulnerable.  The Gangetic Dolphin was declared India’s National Aquatic Animal in 2009[xxxii] and “Endangered” under the IUCN Red List.[xxxiii]

Studies indicate that Gangetic Dolphins are primarily found along the three transboundary rivers- Karnali-Ghaghara, Narayani-Gandak, Koshi- Kosi.[xxxiv] The Dolphins regularly migrate to the Mohana, Pathraiya, Kandra and Kanda rivers of Kailali district as they provide favourable feeding and breeding habitat during monsoons, thus making its conservation dependent on cooperation between Nepal and India. The last nationwide survey recorded an estimate of 6,327 riverine dolphins in India[xxxv] while the first Integrated Dolphin Census of Nepal, conducted in 2016, had recorded a total 52 dolphins throughout the country.[xxxvi]

Along with ecological connectivity comes shared threats. Gangetic Dolphins face hazards like poaching for dolphin oil, fragmented habitats caused by development projects like dams and barrages, accidental killings, pollution, destroying the fresh water habitats in Ganga Basin.[xxxvii]As a result, their number is declining.

Both countries have adopted noteworthy domestic conservation initiatives. India launched the “Project Dolphin” in 2020 which aims to conserve both marine and riverine dolphins, along with associated cetaceans, through habitat protection, scientific research, and community awareness. India also conducted the first ever Ganges River Dolphin Satellite Tagging in 2024 under Project Dolphin led by the Wildlife Institute of India.[xxxviii] Organisations such as the Dolphin Conservation Centre in Bardiya and the Biodiversity Conservation Centre in Nepal work with local fishing communities to conserve the Ganges River Dolphin and its habitat, track dolphin movements, reduce harmful fishing practices, promote awareness and strengthen cross border dolphin conservation cooperation between India and Nepal. It also facilitated a Nepal-India Dialogue for a joint memorandum of Understanding resulting in improved cooperation with Indian stakeholders for transboundary habitat protection[xxxix]. The Conservation Leadership Programme has been able to establish India-Nepal collaboration which resulted in the first ever joint dolphin survey in Karnali river in 2013.[xl]

The Gangetic River Dolphin population has reduced by 50% since 1994[xli] and studies constantly suggest that their survival depends on effective transboundary cooperation.

Snow Leopards

The snow leopard (Panthera uncia) is one of prominent species of the Himalayas, residing across the transboundary mountains of India and Nepal. Nepal’s Kangchenjunga Conservation Area shares its borders with  Khangchendzonga National Park in India, which forms the main Indo-Nepal Snow Leopard transboundary space.[xlii]Both India and Nepal became signatories of the Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program(GSLEP) through the Bishkek Declaration 2013,[xliii] recognising that snow leopard conservation is also necessary for conservation of the fragile alpine ecosystems and livelihoods of mountain communities.

In Nepal, snow leopards live in the Himalayan regions where they are vulnerable to threats of habitat destruction, killings followed by livestock losses, decline in prey population etc. Despite strengthening the management of protected areas, expanding human activities in the mountain ecosystems continue to threaten the survival of Snow leopards calling for stronger community participation and cross border cooperation[xliv].

Human-wildlife conflict remains the ultimate challenge to conservation efforts. Livestock losses caused by snow leopards coupled with inadequate compensation schemes often lead locals to kill them in retaliation.[xlv]

Community based conservation is therefore the game changing factor in snow leopard protection in both countries. The Snow Leopard Conservancy works to promote research on Snow Leopards, Community based anti-poaching units prevent illegal killing and User Groups promote sustainable forest management [xlvi]. India’s UNDP initiatives in Himalayas promote eco-tourism, sources of income resilient to climate and strengthen local community institutions. These efforts underscore the increasingly important role of communities in snow leopard conservation.[xlvii]

The snow leopard is listed as a protected mammal under the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act of 1973 in Nepal[xlviii].  The govt. of India’s Snow Leopard Population Assessment in India (SPAI) was the country’s first nationwide scientific population survey, recording 718 leopards in India.[xlix] It demonstrated the need for coordinated scientific research across the Himalayan states and established a standardised framework for monitoring. WWF India also works with state governments and local communities to maintain snow leopard habitats, reduce conflicts and poaching across the Indian Himalayas[l].

Vultures

Vultures are yet another integral part of the transboundary biodiversity shared between India and Nepal. The populations of four vulture species found in India, endemic to Asia have seen significant declines since the 1990s. They are now listed by IUCN as ‘Critically Endangered’ as they are at a risk of global extinction[li].

Recent GPS-tagging of Vultures show evidence of the transboundary nature of vulture movement. Conservationists from Bird Conservation Nepal have documented the regular movement of White rumped Vultures between India and Nepal, with repeated movements between Western Nepal and adjoining regions of Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh. Vultures travel through Pithoragarh, Champawat, Lohaghat, Pilibhit, Lakhimpur Kheri, Dudhwa National Park and even reaching Pong Dam in Himachal Pradesh covering 520 km.[lii] This shows the ecological connectivity between India and Nepal and highlights the need for coordinated conservation efforts.

The main cause of the dramatic decline in Gyps vulture populations has been attributed to the veterinary use of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) diclofenac[liii]. Both Nepal and India had banned the use of veterinary diclofenac in 2006. Nepal has successfully implemented the first and second Vulture Conservation Action Plans with the third( 2023-2027) underway. It also pioneered the idea of Vulture Safe Zones in 2009, working with the local communities[liv]. India had also banned the veterinary use of Diclofenac in 2006. It has strengthened its conservation framework through the Action Plan for Vulture Conservation (2020-2025) under the MoEFCC which aims to prevent use of NSAIDs, establish Vulture Safe Zones and increase breeding centres.[lv] The Jatayu Conservation and Breeding Centre, a joint project of Haryana Government and Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS) works to conserve the three most vulnerable species of vultures.[lvi]

Unlike Nepal, India is yet to witness a comparable recovery in vulture population since the diclofenac ban, owing to the continued illegal use of the drug.[lvii] Vultures play a key ecological role in society as scavengers, cleaning up the environment by disposing off cattle carcasses.[lviii] Given the transboundary movement of vultures across the Indo-Nepal border, coordinated conservation efforts are essential. Saving Asia’s Vultures from Extinction (SAVE), an international consortium was launched in Delhi and Kathmandu in 2011 for developing a coordinated approach to Vulture Conservation through Vulture Safe Zones (VSZs) expanding across India and Nepal.[lix] Nepali Conservation organisations now coordinate with Indian Institutions like BNHS in monitoring tagged birds, conducting rescue operations.[lx] and raising awareness in the VSZs extending transboundary into Uttar Pradesh, India.[lxi]

Analysis

The conservation experiences of the species highlight that unilateral national efforts are often insufficient for transboundary biodiversity governance. While Tiger and Rhino conservation demonstrates the benefits of coordinated landscape level management within the TAL, elephant conservation continue to face challenge owing to fragmented corridors and human-wildlife conflict. Similarly movements of Gangetic Dolphins through connected rivers and GPS tracked vultures across international borders also showcase the ecological interconnectedness between two countries. Snow Leopards on the other hand highlight the importance of including communities in biodiversity protection in fragile mountainous landscapes.

These experiences bring out few common themes. Firstly ecological connectivity through corridors, rivers and shared landscapes is crucial for long term survival of species. Secondly, community participation through buffer-zone management, conflict management, awareness programmes etc can go a long way in species conservation. Thirdly, scientific coordination through joint monitoring, population surveys, information exchange and GPS tracking have become the new pillars of efficient wildlife cooperation.

Conclusion

The 2026 India-Nepal MoU on Forests, Wildlife Conservation, Biodiversity Protection and Climate Change is more than just a bilateral environmental agreement, it marks an important first step towards institutionalising biodiversity conservation as a strategic pillar of India-Nepal relations. The findings of the study emphasise that conservation of the shared species- including Asian elephants, one-horned rhinos, Bengal tigers, Gangetic Dolphins, snow leopards and vultures is linked with the protection of the transboundary habitats connecting the two countries. Hence, the community level engagement also becomes necessary for the MoU implementation. Over time the agreement has the potential to evolve beyond species conservation to promote transboundary eco-tourism, sustainable livelihoods and climate resilience across shared landscapes. This would improve well-being of border communities alongside long-term conservation outcomes. The effective implementation of the MoU would emerge as a comprehensive model of transboundary conservation, offering a distinctive example of environmental diplomacy and cooperation in South Asia.

*****

*Shalini Sarkar, Research Intern, Indian Council of World Affairs, New Delhi
Disclaimer: Views expressed are personal. 

Endnotes 

[i] Press Information Bureau, Government of India, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, “India and Nepal Sign MoU to Strengthen Cooperation in Forests, Wildlife, Environment, Biodiversity Conservation and Climate Change,” February 25, 2026, https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleseDetailm.aspx?PRID=2232834.

[ii] Ibid.

[iii] Ibid.

[iv] Government of Nepal, Elephant Conservation Action Plan for Nepal (2025–2035) (Kathmandu: Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Ministry of Forests and Environment, 2025), https://www.ntnc.org.np/sites/default/files/doc_publication/2025-05/Elephant_Action%20Plan_Nepal_2025_2035_.pdf. 

[v]Project Elephant, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India, and Wildlife Institute of India, Framework for Preparation of Elephant Conservation Plan (ECP) for the Elephant Reserves (New Delhi and Dehradun: Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change and Wildlife Institute of India, 2024), https://moef.gov.in/uploads/pdf/framework_preparation_elephant_conservation_plan.pdf.

[vi] Government of Nepal, Elephant Conservation Action Plan for Nepal (2025–2035), 11, 30.

[vii]Project Elephant, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India, Elephant Corridors of India, 2023 (New Delhi: Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, 2023), https://moef.gov.in/uploads/2023/11/PE-Elephant-Corridor-of-India-2023.pdf.

[viii] Government of Nepal, Elephant Conservation Action Plan for Nepal.

[ix] Ibid.

[x] Zoe Osborne, “The Elephants Who Destroy Livelihoods and Lives in Nepal on Their Desperate Search of Food,” ABC News (Australia), December 31, 2023, https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-12-31/elephants-who-destroy-livelihoods-and-lives-in-nepal/102565772.

[xi] Project Elephant and Wildlife Institute of India, Framework for Preparation of Elephant Conservation Plan (ECP) for the Elephant Reserves.

[xii]ibid.

[xiii] Government of Nepal, Elephant Conservation Action Plan for Nepal

[xiv] Amit Sharma, “Protect the Indian Rhino, Secure Our Grasslands,” WWF India, accessed July 7, 2026, https://www.wwfindia.org/wwf-india-updates/feature_stories/protect_the_indian_rhino_secure_our_grasslands/

[xv] Bibhab Kumar Talukdar and Satya Priya Sinha, “Challenges and Opportunities of Transboundary Rhino Conservation in India and Nepal,” Pachyderm 54 (July–December 2013): 45–51, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281153681_Challenges_and_opportunities_of_transboundary_rhino_conservation_in_India_and_Nepal.

[xvi] Sharma, “Protect the Indian Rhino, Secure Our Grasslands.”

[xvii] World Wildlife Fund, “Greater One-Horned Rhino,” World Wildlife Fund, accessed July 7, 2026, https://www.worldwildlife.org/species/rhino/greater-one-horned-rhino.

[xviii] Talukdar and Sinha, “Challenges and Opportunities of Transboundary Rhino Conservation in India and Nepal.”

[xix] Government of Nepal, Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Ministry of Forests and Environment, The Greater One-horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) Conservation Action Plan for Nepal (2024–2034) (Kathmandu: Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, 2024), https://giwmscdntwo.gov.np/media/pdf_upload/Rhino%20Conservation%20Action%20Plan%20(2024-2034)_qg57czv.pdf.

[xx] Press Information Bureau, Government of India, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, India's Wildlife Conservation Milestones (New Delhi: Press Information Bureau, March 3, 2025), https://static.pib.gov.inhttps://www.icwa.in/WriteReadData/specificdocs/documents/2025/mar/doc202533511501.pdf

[xxi] Ibid.

[xxii] International Union for Conservation of Nature Species Survival Commission Species Conservation Action, “Strengthening Rhino Conservation through Community Stewardship in Pobitora, India,” IUCN SOS, accessed July 7, 2026, https://www.iucnsos.org/projects/strengthening-rhino-conservation-through-community-stewardship-in-pobitora-india/

[xxiii] Ramesh Kumar Paudel, “Electric Traps Emerge as Growing Threat to Rhino Conservation in Nepal,” The Kathmandu Post, May 17, 2026, https://kathmandupost.com/province-no-3/2026/05/17/electric-traps-emerge-as-growing-threat-to-rhino-conservation-in-nepal.

[xxiv] National Tiger Conservation Authority and Wildlife Institute of India, Connecting Tiger Populations for Long-Term Conservation (New Delhi: National Tiger Conservation Authority, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India, 2014), https://ntca.gov.in/assets/uploads/Reports/corridor/connecting_tiger_populations.pdf

[xxv] Press Information Bureau, Government of India, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, “Parliament Question: Increase in Tiger Population,” November 25, 2024, https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2076921®=48&lang=2

[xxvi] World Wildlife Fund, “Nepal Nearly Triples Its Wild Tiger Population,” World Wildlife Fund, July 29, 2022, https://www.worldwildlife.org/news/stories/nepal-nearly-triples-its-wild-tiger-population.

[xxvii] Press Information Bureau, India's Wildlife Conservation Milestones.

[xxviii] Ibid.

[xxix] Manoj Paudel, Dipendra Baduwal, and Ramesh Kumar Paudel, “Tigers Thrive, Conflicts Decline in Nepal,” The Kathmandu Post, July 29, 2025, https://kathmandupost.com/national/2025/07/29/tigers-thrive-conflicts-decline-in-nepal

[xxx]International Union for Conservation of Nature Species Survival Commission Species Conservation Action, “Supporting Trans-boundary Tiger Recovery in India and Nepal – Phase III,” IUCN SOS, accessed July 8, 2026, https://www.iucnsos.org/projects/supporting-trans-boundary-tiger-recovery-in-india-and-nepal-phase-iii/

[xxxi] Zoological Society of London, “Transboundary Tigers and Elephants in India and Nepal,” ZSL, accessed July 8, 2026, https://www.zsl.org/what-we-do/projects/transboundary-tigers-and-elephants-india-and-nepal.

[xxxii] Ravindra K. Sinha and Kurunthachalam Kannan, “Ganges River Dolphin: An Overview of Biology, Ecology, and Conservation Status in India,” Ambio 43, no. 8 (2014): 1029–1046, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4235892/

[xxxiii] Ibid.

[xxxiv] Gopal Khanal and Nachiket Kelkar, Understanding the Effects of Trans-boundary Barrage Operations on the Nepal–India Border for Ganges River Dolphin Habitat and Population Dynamics: Final Report Submitted to the IWC Small Cetacean Fund (2021–23 Grant Round) (International Whaling Commission, December 2023), https://iwc.int/public/documents/D0n8R/Khanal-and-Kelkar_IWC-Nepal-India-FINAL-project-report-%28002%29.pdf

[xxxv] Press Information Bureau, Government of India, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, “Second Rangewide Estimation of Riverine and Estuarine Dolphins in India Starts from Bijnor,” January 17, 2025, https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2215575®=3&lang=1

[xxxvi] Chandan Kumar Mandal, “Migratory Dolphins Return to Nepali Waters Earlier than Usual,” The Kathmandu Post, June 18, 2020, https://kathmandupost.com/climate-environment/2020/06/18/migratory-dolphins-return-to-nepali-waters-earlier-than-usual.

[xxxvii] Wildlife Institute of India, “Gangetic Dolphin,” National Mission for Clean Ganga – Priority Species, last updated February 22, 2024, https://v1.wii.gov.in/nmcg/priority-species/mammals/ganges-river-dolphin.

[xxxviii] Press Information Bureau, India's Wildlife Conservation Milestones.

[xxxix] Biodiversity Conservation Center, Nepal, “Conservation of the Endangered Ganges River Dolphin (Platanista gangetica) in Koshi Tappu, Nepal,” BCCN, accessed July 8, 2026, https://www.bccn.org.np/projects/detail.php?id=13.

[xl] Gopal Khanal, Dipendra Nath, Ram Autar Chaudhary, and Bhoj Raj Dhungana, Ecology and Conservation of Ganges River Dolphin (Platanista gangetica gangetica) in the Karnali River, Nepal: Final Technical Report (Conservation Leadership Programme, September 21, 2015), https://www.conservationleadershipprogramme.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/03119513_Nepal_FinalReport_Ecology-and-Conservation-of-Ganges-River-Dolphin-in-Karnali_21Sept15.pdf.

[xli] Ibid.

[xlii] Bibek Bhandari, “Snow Leopards Frequently Cross Nepal, India, China Borders, Study Finds,” Focusing on Wildlife, June 12, 2025, https://focusingonwildlife.com/news/snow-leopards-frequently-cross-nepal-india-china-borders-study-finds/.

[xliii] Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program, The Bishkek Declaration on the Conservation of the Snow Leopard, adopted October 23, 2013, https://globalsnowleopard.org/bishkek-declaration/

[xliv] Manoj Paudel, “Snow Leopards in Nepal: Rare Predators of High Himalayas,” The Kathmandu Post, October 23, 2025, https://kathmandupost.com/national/2025/10/23/snow-leopards-in-nepal-rare-predators-of-high-himalayas.

[xlv] World Wildlife Fund, “Where Do Snow Leopards Live? And 9 Other Snow Leopard Facts,” World Wildlife Fund, accessed July 9, 2026, https://www.worldwildlife.org/resources/facts/where-do-snow-leopards-live-and-nine-other-snow-leopard-facts/.

[xlvi] Sheren Shrestha, “Saving the Ghosts of the Mountains,” The Kathmandu Post, October 24, 2017, https://kathmandupost.com/opinion/2017/10/24/saving-the-ghosts-of-the-mountains.

[xlvii] United Nations Development Programme, Securing Livelihoods in the Himalayas, accessed July 9, 2026, https://www.undp.org/india/projects/securing-livelihoods-himalayas .

[xlviii] Pratistha Shrestha, Dipesh Kumar Sharma, Prakash Shah, and others, “Tracking the Ghosts of the Himalayas: Snow Leopard Conservation Insights from Satellite Collar Data,” Ecology and Evolution 15, no. 1 (2025): e70802, https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ece3.70802 .

[xlix] Wildlife Institute of India, Status of Snow Leopard in India (Dehradun: Wildlife Institute of India, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India, 2024), https://v1.wii.gov.in/status\_snow\_leopard\_2024 .

[l] WWF India, “Save the Snow Leopard – Protect Our Lifeline,” WWF India, accessed July 8, 2026, https://www.wwfindia.org/about_wwf/priority_species/save_the_snow_leopard/.

[li] SAVE (Saving Asia’s Vultures from Extinction), Saving India’s Vultures from Extinction: Summary & Policy Statement (2025), https://save-vultures.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/Vulture-policy-brief-India-2025.pdf.

[lii] Bhawani Bhatta, “Conservationists Track Vultures with GPS Device,” The Kathmandu Post, October 7, 2025, https://kathmandupost.com/sudurpaschim-province/2025/10/07/conservationists-track-vultures-with-gps-device.

[liii] SAVE, Saving India's Vultures from Extinction.

[liv] Government of Nepal, Ministry of Forests and Environment, Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, and Department of Forests and Soil Conservation, Vulture Conservation Action Plan (2023–2027) (Kathmandu: Government of Nepal, 2023), https://save-vultures.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/Vulture-Conservation-Action-Plan-2023-2027_Final-15-August-2023.pdf.

[lv] Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India, Action Plan for Vulture Conservation in India (2020–2025) (New Delhi: Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, 2020), https://save-vultures.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/20-11-India-National-Vulture-Action-Plan-2020-25.pdf.

[lvi] Haryana Forest Department, “Vulture Conservation and Breeding Centre, Pinjore,” accessed July 8, 2026, https://haryanaforest.gov.in/vulture-conservation-and-breeding-centre-pinjore/.

[lvii] SAVE, Saving India's Vultures from Extinction.

[lviii] Ibid.

[lix] Khanal et al., Ecology and Conservation of Ganges River Dolphin in the Karnali River, Nepal.

[lx] Bhatta, “Conservationists Track Vultures with GPS Device.”

[lxi] Vulture Conservation Foundation, “First Release of Critically Endangered Captive-bred Vultures in Nepal,” 4 Vultures, November 30, 2017, https://4vultures.org/blog/first-release-of-critically-endangered-captive-bred-vultures-in-nepal/.