Indian Council of World Affairs

Abstract: India is one of the largest source countries of international student migrants. In the last decade, there has been a substantial rise in outbound student mobility to diverse destinations. Drawing from secondary sources, this paper examines the trends, destinations, drivers, and implications of student migration from India. It argues that international student migration is not just an educational phenomenon but also a broader socio-economic and developmental process. While overseas education offers opportunities for skills, international exposure, and career prospects, it also raises concerns about student welfare, financial burdens on households, and substantial resource outflows. 

Introduction

Over the past two decades, international student mobility has increased significantly from 2.1 million in 2000 to 7.3 million in 2023.[i] The United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, Germany, Canada, the Russian Federation, and France continue to host nearly half of all international students. At the same time, Türkiye and the United Arab Emirates are emerging as the new go-to destinations for international students.[ii] Due to this sharp rise, international student migration has gained attention within academic, research, and policy circles. This increasing interest comes from its far-reaching and enduring implications for labour markets, demography, social transformation, economic development, and political dynamics in both countries of origin and destination. As a result, student migration is recognised not merely as an educational phenomenon linked to origin and destination countries but as a significant driver of broader socio-economic and geopolitical change.

A few originating countries view student migration as an outflow of talent and a loss of human capital, referring to it as a “brain drain”, whereas receiving countries view it as a strong demographic force that influences local culture and the workforce and exerts pressure on scarce resources and politics. The benefits of international student migration vary by country and can be attributed to redistributions of human resources, which helps balance the demand and supply of knowledge, resources, and finances within the education system. As a result both, sending and receiving countries adopt varied policies to manage and regulate them.

Policy Perception of International Student Migration

International student migration carries intrinsic values for sending and receiving countries. For instance, successful educational migration that leads to employment can open opportunities for other students. However, the sending and receiving societies may have negative perceptions of these migrations. In origin countries, it is sometimes viewed as an escape from local social and cultural realities and as a movement influenced by the West. In receiving societies, a common perception is that international students hold questionable values, and use study routes  as a means to leave their country, society, culture, and social system; gradually, entering the local labour market. In some countries, crime is also associated with them. It is believed that they influence local culture and demographics and sometimes take jobs from local citizens. This perception has at times led to clashes between locals and outsiders.[iii]

In the past few decades, the education sectors of many countries have experienced significant reductions in public funding.[iv] ^[v] As a result, many higher education institutions have become dependent on international students as a vital source of revenue, particularly because international students often pay substantially higher tuition fees than domestic students.

Public policies offer mixed responses to international students. The positive aspect is that international students are often considered among the brightest minds who pursue higher education at top institutions, and during their stay as students, they already familiarise themselves with the culture and working conditions of the destination country.[vi] In host countries, it is believed that retaining such students requires little or no investment and that they can support and complement their ageing and depleting workforce. Hiring such students is also cost-effective, as they are subject to different labour regulation that require no or low social security costs, unlike locals. At the same time, the return of such students is seen as a way to repay the society that indirectly funded public institutions that benefit emigrants and locals alike. So, the notion of international students as economic agents also counters popular perceptions such as brain drain and instead amplifies the idea of brain circulation. The recent Free Trade Agreements with the United Kingdom, the European Union, and Russia also include provisions on migration and mobility that focus on student and researcher mobility.[vii] In recent times, Indian students have been receiving scholarships in large numbers, and provisions for post-study stay and work further help them pursue their dreams and repay their educational loans.

Context of India

Student migration is not a new phenomenon in India. Aspiration for education constitutes an important motivation for migration among Indian students. A considerable number of students relocate across states and regions within the country to study at reputed academic institutions, access better educational infrastructure, enrol in a specialised programme, and improve post-qualification career prospects. At the international level, India has emerged as one of the largest source countries of student migrants. Indian students increasingly seek higher education opportunities in prominent Anglophone destinations, particularly the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, and Canada.[viii] In recent times, non-English-speaking countries such as Germany, Russia, Kyrgyzstan, Italy, Ireland, France, the Philippines, and Kazakhstan are also witnessing large numbers of Indian students, reflecting the globalisation of education and the perceived benefits associated with international qualifications and exposure to the global labour market.

Trends of Student Migration from India

According to statistics from the Ministry of External Affairs (MEA), the number of Indian students pursuing higher education abroad increased from 0.68 million in 2016 to 1.3 million in 2024, reflecting the rising interest in higher education among Indian students. Figure 1 shows considerable fluctuations in student migration from India during this period. Initially, the number of outbound students rose by more than 17 per cent year-on-year, followed by a sharp decline of over 23 per cent in the subsequent year. Thereafter, student migration showed an upward flow, increasing steadily before registering a remarkable surge of more than 69 per cent in 2021. This growth was followed by a decline of over 21 per cent in 2022, after which student mobility rebounded strongly, rising by 43 per cent in 2023. Growth moderated significantly in 2024, with an increase of only 1 per cent, suggesting a response to changing immigration policies around the world. 

Figure 1: International Student Migration from India (2016–2024)

Source: MEA (2024, 2025) and NITI Aayog (2025). 

Student Migration Destinations

The student migration preference from India has undergone significant change between 2016 and 2024, indicating that students are highly responsive to global events, such as geopolitical shifts, immigration policy changes, varying educational opportunities, and changing career prospects. In 2016, the United States was the most preferred destination with over 0.42 million students, far ahead of other countries. By 2024, Canada emerged as the leading destination with 0.42 million students, supported by favourable immigration pathways, post-study work opportunities, and comparatively affordable education. While the United States remained a major destination with 337,630 students during this period, the United Kingdom experienced significant growth, where the number of students increased from 16,559 in 2016 to 185,000 in 2024, mainly due to the introduction of post-study work visas and increased student recruitment efforts by British universities. Australia also remained attractive for its leading universities, witnessing a steady growth from 78,103 students in 2016 to 122,202 in 2024.[ix]

Table 1 shows the ten most preferred destinations of Indian students. The data further highlights the popularity of alternative study destinations, including non-English countries. For instance, Germany witnessed a fourfold rise in the number of Indian students, reaching about 43,000 in 2024, supported by relatively lower tuition fees and strong engineering programmes. The United Arab Emirates, which now hosts over 25,000 students, reflects the successful rise of international campuses of popular universities.[x]

Meanwhile, Russia, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, and the Philippines continued to attract Indian students, particularly for medical education, due to lower costs and easier admission processes. Ukraine, which used to host over 18,000 Indian students in 2020, lost its attractiveness as a destination for students due to the Russia-Ukraine conflict. 

Table 1: Top Study Destinations for Indian Students (2016-24)

Source: NITI Aayog, 2025

While migration for higher education from India has been well established for several decades, the growing number of Indian students pursuing school education overseas is a relatively recent trend. This new pattern indicates changing aspirations among Indian households, who wish to invest in their children’s global education at younger ages. MEA (2025) estimates that about 0.62 million Indian students are pursuing school education abroad.[xi] The distribution of Indian students is skewed towards the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries. The largest number of students is in the UAE (247,325), followed by Saudi Arabia (75,000), Australia (57,529), Kuwait (50,000), Qatar (47,846), Oman (44,547), Singapore (30,000), Bahrain (28,215), South Africa (11,240), and Ireland (10,000). Smaller, yet significant, numbers of students are also studying in schools in Malaysia (4,787), Germany (2,714), Thailand (2,394), and Japan (1,909).

Figure 2: Top Study Destinations for Indian School Students (2025)

Source: MEA, 2025

 
Reasons for Student Migration from India

In the past decade, the Indian education sector has witnessed a significant shift in both enrolment and institutional capacity. Total enrolment in higher education has increased from 34.2 million students in 2014 and 2015 to 43.3 million in 2021–22. The growth is particularly significant among female students, which rose by 32 per cent from 15.7 million in 2014–15 to 20.7 million in 2021 and 2022. Research-oriented courses have also witnessed a surge in admissions. Total enrolment in PhD programmes has increased from 117,000 in 2014 and 2015 to 213,000 in 2021–22, registering a growth of 81.2 per cent. Female participation in doctoral studies has shown even stronger growth, nearly doubling from 48,000 to 99,000 in this period. Therefore, the most obvious reason for outbound student migration is the increasing demand for higher education.

Though the expansion of higher education has been supported by a significant increase in the number of Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) in India, postgraduate and doctoral programmes are still not offered by many institutions. In the last decade, HEIs grew from 51,534 in 2014–15 to 70,018 as of June 2025. However, it is important to note that, despite this steep rise in the higher education sector, very few institutions have reached the international standard for quality education and career prospects.

Today, students and their families are more informed than ever about the opportunities in the foreign educational system and migration pathways, and they are also willing to invest heavily in education. As a result, they are increasingly selective in choosing institutions that not only offer high-quality education but also provide strong employment and career prospects. The growing demand for international education is reflected in the large number of student visa applications submitted each year. However, a substantial proportion of these applications are rejected. A recent estimate suggests that approximately 61 per cent of student visa applications submitted by Indian applicants to the United States were denied.[xii] Such high rejection rates highlight the significant barriers that many aspiring students face in pursuing educational opportunities abroad. Often, language requirements are also becoming a barrier.

According to NITI Aayog’s 2025 report, Indian students show a strong preference for Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics (STEM) and other career-oriented disciplines, such as management. Fields such as engineering and mathematics account for over one-third of students’ enrolments, while management is another major area in which Indian students seek admission. Other fields, such as social science, arts, and linguistics, are less popular due to high tuition fees. In recent times, a significant number of students have opted for medical and nursing courses in non-traditional destinations, such as Russia, Kyrgyzstan, Georgia, and the Philippines, mainly due to their relatively easy admission processes, attractive fee structures, and advanced academic infrastructure.

However, the number of such students is relatively small due to mandatory tests and licensing requirements.

In Indian states like Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Delhi, greater awareness of international education opportunities and student mobility pathways leads to relatively high levels of outbound student migration.

Impact of Student Migration

Although migration for education is often the result of decisions made by students and their families, it has significant implications for sending and receiving countries. Most destination countries regulate the intake of international students through enrolment caps and other policy measures; in some cases, students have to leave the country immediately after course completion, while others allow them to look for and take up jobs. Students who move to a new country often face challenges such as adapting to unfamiliar social norms, educational systems, work culture, food habits, social hierarchies, and economic conditions. Many international students take on part-time jobs to support their education and living expenses, often within the limits set by destination-country regulations on student work hours.

At the same time, sending countries are increasingly concerned about students’ welfare, quality of education, safety, and employment opportunities upon graduation. The rise of anti-immigrant protests worldwide is a new threat to students. For a developing country like India, another major concern is the cost associated with overseas education. Studying abroad requires a significant investment, and, often, migrants use all available resources, such as savings, loans, and other sources, to fund their education. According to the Indian Student Mobility Report 2023-24, Indian students spent around $34 billion on education and related expenses in four major destination countries (the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia) during the 2023–24 academic year.[xiii] This represents a significant outflow of funds from India and may affect foreign exchange reserves.

Conclusion

International student migration has emerged as a crucial dimension of global migration and mobility. It is significantly interconnected with education, labour markets, and the economic development of the sending and receiving countries. Over the past decade, India has witnessed a significant increase in outbound student mobility, driven by educational aspirations, access to information, enhanced household investments in education, and the pursuit of better career prospects. The diverse choices show that Indians are carefully selecting their education destinations.

However, the increasing student migration raises important policy concerns. On one hand, overseas education provides opportunities for skill enhancement, international exposure, and better career prospects. On the other hand, it imposes high costs on households and also results in an outflow of resources from the country. The heightened challenges posed by growing anti-immigrant sentiments, visa restrictions, social integration, and labour market access in several destination countries underscore the need to view student migration not merely as an educational issue but as a matter of human capital development and migration governance.

At this juncture, India must adopt a balanced approach to maximise the benefits of international student mobility while minimising associated risks. Strengthening the quality and competitiveness of domestic higher education institutions should be prioritised to reduce the need for overseas study. The national policy on education and migration should focus on brain circulation by creating pathways for return and enabling overseas alumni to contribute to India’s innovation, research, and economic development. Such an approach would help India transform a potential loss of talent into a strategic gain and national development.

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*Kishlay Kirti, Research Associate (CMMDS), Indian Council of World Affairs, New Delhi.
Disclaimer: Views expressed are personal.


Endnotes

[i] UNESCO, “Higher education global trends report: towards inclusive, equitable and quality higher education in an internationally mobile landscape,” United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (Paris, 2025).

[ii] Ibid.

[iii] Martin Vinæs Larsen, Gabriel S Lenz and Anna Mikkelborg, “Migration and the persistence of violence”, PNAS, Vol. 122, No. 148, (2025), pp.1-11.

[iv] European Commission, “Public investment in education sees largest drop across the EU, according to latest comparative report,” 2024, https://education.ec.europa.eu/news/public-investment-in-education-sees-largest-drop-across-the-eu-according-to-latest-comparative-report.

[v] Yvonne Riaño, Christof Van Mol & Parvati Raghuram, “New directions in studying policies of international student mobility and migration”, Globalisation, Societies and Education, Vol. 16, No. 3, (2018), pp. 283-294.

[vi] Ibid

[vii] Kishlay Kirti & Yashna Agarwalla, “India–EU FTA: Prospects for Talent Mobility”, ICWA-Issue Brief, 2025.

[viii] Arpan Tulsyan, “From Loss to Leverage: Reframing India’s Strategy on International Student Migration”, ORF Occasional Paper No. 525, 2025.

[ix] NITI Aayog, “International Student Mobility:A Global and Indian Temporal Overview”, NITI Working Paper Series, Working Paper No. O-15012/29/25-R&NNITI, 2025.

[x] Ibid,

[xi] Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, “Annexure ‘I’ Data on Indian Students Abroad,” 2025, https://sansad.in/getFile/annex/269/AU557_sv1cVd.pdf?source=pqars.

[xii] Business Standard, “US student visa refusals rise: India among worst-hit at 61%, says report”, 2025, https://www.business-standard.com/immigration/us-student-visa-refusals-rise-india-among-worst-hit-at-61-says-report-126041700909_1.html.

[xiii] University Living Accommodation, “ Beyond Beds & Boundaries: Indian Student Mobility Report 2023-24”, 2025, https://onestep.global/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/The-Beyond-Beds-and-Boundaries-Indian-Student-Mobility-Report.pdf.