Indian Council of World Affairs

Abstract: International migration from India has evolved from an ordinary process to a driver of development, affecting families and the national economy. Migration patterns have undergone a structural transformation, initially driven by demand in the Gulf Cooperation Council countries and subsequently towards advanced economies. While migration has increasingly become a subject of socio-political debate in host countries, underlying economic imperatives continue to sustain demand for Indian migrants. Looking ahead, migration from India is expected to remain robust, driven by demographic pressures, upward mobility, and deepening global interdependencies. 

Context

Migration has become an integral part of today’s society; people migrate to distant places for various reasons, such as exploring opportunities, seeking a better life, pursuing dreams and escaping conflict and violence.^[i] According to the Census 2011, one in three Indians is a migrant, but this migration is skewed towards internal migration.^[ii] International migration from India accounts for a small fraction of its total population and about 6 per cent of global migrants. According to the Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) 2025, 34.4 million Indians live abroad, of which 17 million are Non-Resident Indians (NRIs).^[iii]

Out-Migration from India

Migration from India dates back to British rule, when people were sent as indentured labour to work in British colonies.^[iv]’[v] Post-independence, out-migration from India was characterised by ad hoc recruitment practices and personal networks, and it received a boost only after the 1970s, when countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) began investing heavily in infrastructure and industries that required large numbers of workers recruited from countries like India.^[vi] Initially, people from Kerala migrated in large numbers to the Gulf and supported their families and Kerala’s economy through remittances. Even today, Kerala is known for large-scale out-migration and contributes significantly to the state’s Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) through remittances.

The post-1990 phase witnessed liberalisation of the migration process, supported by eased visa policies and improvements in communication. Many destination countries started connecting through direct flights to major Indian cities, leading to large-scale out-migration from India. People from states like Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Punjab and Maharashtra migrated to work and seek higher wages. Today, India’s technological know-how, advanced skills and training and shifting demographics at destinations are creating large-scale demand for Indian professionals with varied skills. Many countries, such as Australia, Denmark, Finland, France, Italy, Germany, and Portugal, have signed bilateral Migration and Mobility Partnership Agreements (MMPAs) with India to strengthen pathways for migrants. Besides this, India has also signed comprehensive trade agreements with the European Union, the United Kingdom and Russia, which include a mobility clause to increase cooperation in the mobility of professionals, researchers, students and business personnel, expected to support short-term, circular mobility.

The recent migration from India has seen a tremendous shift: states known for sending unskilled migrants are now focusing on skills-based mobility through targeted skilling and foreign-language courses. Similarly, popular destination countries in the Gulf and the EU are eyeing high-skilled professionals to support their vision of sustainable development and a services-based economy.[vii]’[viii] In recent years, the number of students pursuing higher education at foreign universities has increased remarkably from 259,655 in 2020 to 759,064 in 2024.[ix] At the same time, perceptions and narratives around migration are shifting. In many destination countries, migrants are not liked by residents and lawmakers; migrants are believed to be responsible for the unemployment among of local youths and behind crimes. However, the policy and demographic trends narrate a different story; migrants are needed to sustain essential occupations and services like agriculture, engineering, healthcare, education and information technology-enabled services (ITEs).

Further, from an economic perspective, migrants are essential for addressing labour shortages and improving efficiency, as they work at lower wages and are often excluded from costs such as social security and unemployment benefits. Despite the nuances of international migration, the outflow of people to international destinations remains robust. The International Organization for Migration (IOM) states that most international migration occurs in line with the objectives of the Global Compact for Migration (GCM), i.e., safe, orderly and regular.[x] People continue to migrate in pursuit of their aspirations. The relatively higher income and better life prospects in destination countries are considered the main motives behind these moves. Remittances sent by migrants support their left-behind families and boost the national economy’s foreign exchange reserves.[xi] According to World Bank statistics, migrant remittances have become one of the largest sources of external finance. In developing countries, it has surpassed the foreign direct investment (FDI) and official development assistance.

International Migration Trends

According to IOM (2024), about 281 million people, equivalent to 3.6 per cent of the global population, are international migrants, and they remit $856 billion annually.^[xii] Mexico–USA migration forms the world’s largest migration corridor, and four of the ten largest corridors belong to India. They are India–United Arab Emirates, India–United States of America, India–Saudi Arabia and Bangladesh–India. Clearly, this indicates that India is not only a major country of origin of migrants but also a major receiving country. According to the 2011 Census, India hosts immigrants mainly from Bangladesh, Pakistan and Nepal. Data on international migration are quite scarce due to administrative and behavioural factors. In any country, a census is the most accurate way to gauge the number of foreign nationals and emigrants, as it provides universal demographic coverage. However, the census has the limitation that it provides a decennial record that fails to capture circular mobility or seasonal migration. For this reason, most countries use administrative data collected at the entry/exit points. However, when a migrant overstays a visa or fails to return, they become an irregular migrant, creating another statistical challenge for migration mapping.

In India, the MEA is responsible for overseeing migration matters, particularly emigration. It publishes data and reports on migration. The MEA-2025 data indicate that Indian migrants are present in 207 countries but are more concentrated (>100,000) in 16 countries. The e-Migrate portal maintained by the MEA provides comprehensive data on migrants going to 19 designated countries where an emigration check is mandatory.^[xiii]

According to the e-Migrate data, 1.7 million emigration clearances were issued during 2021 to 2025; of which 41 per cent were issued to people travelling to Saudi Arabia, 24.6 per cent to the United Arab Emirates (UAE), and 12.5 per cent to Kuwait, while the fewest clearances were issued to South Sudan, Thailand and Indonesia. Figure 1 shows a five-year trend (2021–2025) of issuance of emigration clearance to key destinations. During this period, the number of emigration clearances was initially low due to COVID-19 and related travel restrictions. In later years, it shows an upward trend.

Figure 1: Number of Emigration Clearance (ECs) issued from 2021 to 2025
Source: MEA 2025

People travelling beyond 19 designated countries under the ECR category do not require clearance from the Protector of Emigrants (PoE). Hence, their data is separately maintained by the MEA. According to the latest data, the most preferred destinations for such migrants are the USA, Canada, Germany, Australia and the UK. Figure 2 shows the presence of Indians across geographies, for both ECR and ECNR categories. The United Arab Emirates, with 3.9 million Indians, is the largest host country, followed by Saudi Arabia with 2.7 million and the USA with 1.9 million.

Figure 2: Indian Migrants in Different Countries
Source: MEA, 2025

Note: This interactive map shows Indian migrants across geographies. Scroll over a country to see the number of migrants. Destinations with fewer than 20,000 migrants are excluded. 

The data is not available for previous years. To understand the context and to complement the existing data, this article uses migration statistics from the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA). The UNDESA statistics are based on the estimation of national data. Though it differs from national statistics, it is found to be helpful for understanding real-world scenarios.

Figure 3 shows the migration trends of Indians in key destination countries from 1990 to 2024. The data reveals transformations across geographies and changes in the composition of migration over the past three decades. In this period, India has experienced significant growth in migration to the GCC countries: the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Oman, Bahrain and Qatar. The United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia have emerged as the key destinations. This migratory flow is fuelled by continued demand for low- and semi-skilled workers in construction, as well as skilled professionals in healthcare. Migration towards high-income, advanced economies has also risen steadily, particularly to the USA, Canada, the UK, Australia and Germany. Although the absolute numbers are lower than those of the Gulf corridor, their growth trajectory is notable. The migration trends towards these destinations suggest aspirations and a quest for advancement. Such migration is led by highly skilled and educated professionals, including students, researchers, IT professionals, healthcare workers and business professionals. The consistent migration towards the neighbouring country, Nepal, is mainly due to historical, social and cultural linkages, supported by an open border.[xiv]

Figure 3: India Migration Trends (1990–2024)
Source: UNDESA, 2025

Remittance Trends

Remittance is sent by migrants to their families in their country of origin. In developing countries, they are an essential source of income for their families and are also important to the national gross domestic product (GDP). It is considered an important absorber of external shocks, particularly during economic crises. In India, remittance receipts have generally remained higher than gross inward foreign direct investment (FDI) flows, making it a stable source of external financing. It also enhances foreign exchange reserves.[xv]

Data from the World Bank on personal remittances indiactes a consistent increase  in remittance receipts in India, rising from an 11 per cent share of global remittances in 2001to about 14 per cent in 2024[xvi]. Figure 4 shows India’s remittance trends since 1990. Since 2008, India has been the largest recipient of remittance and in 2022, it became the first country to exceed $100 billion on an annual basis.

Figure 4 shows the remittance trend of India since 1990. India has been the largest recipient of remittances since 2008, and in 2022, it became the first country to surpass $100 billion in annual remittances.[xvii]

Figure 4: Remittance Trend, India
Source: World Bank, 2025
Note: Figures are in billion (USD)

Out-migration from India has increased by threefold since the 1990s, as the remittance statistics reveals. Figure 5 shows the top remittance contributor of India from 2016-17 to 2023-24. The Gulf countries are major remittance contributors to India, given the scale of migration. The USA has become the single largest contributor to inward remittances to India, followed by the UAE and the UK. Among the GCC countries, the UAE and Saudi Arabia are the largest contributors.

Figure 5: Inward Remittance to India from Key Destinations
Source: RBI, 2025

India’s migration history has evolved from indentured labour to unskilled mobility towards GCC countries. Today, half of all Indian migrants live in the GCC countries, while the other half is moving towards advanced economies. Skilled people are taking up high-paying jobs in developed and high-income countries; in recent years, their numbers have increased significantly. Aspiring students are migrating in large numbers to pursue advanced degrees. The higher expected income and promising job prospects continue to drive Indian professionals to seek opportuinities abroad. Remittances sent by Indian migrants are also showing a gradual shift, as the dominance of GCC countries is shifting towards advanced economies. According to the Sixth Round Remittances Survey (2023–24), Maharashtra received the largest share of remittances (20.5 per cent), followed by Kerala (19.7 per cent), Tamil Nadu (10.4 per cent) and Telangana (8.1 per cent).

Conclusion

International migration from India is not just a demographic phenomenon but also an element of economic development. It significantly affects the lives of millions of families. Since the 1970s, it has undergone a significant structural shift, particularly, the economic expansion of GCC economies has generated large-scale demand for Indian labour. Over time, migration from India has diversified geographically, with increased flows to advanced economies such as the USA, the UK, Canada, Germany and Australia. The migration towards advanced economies amid their ageing populations and shrinking workforces highlights a transition from low-skilled, regionally concentrated migration to more diversified, skill-intensive mobility, reflecting broader structural changes in both Indian economy and the global labour market. These days, migration narratives have become the focal point of socio-political confrontation in destination countries. However, underlying realities, such as ageing, labour shortages and sectoral demands, continue to sustain the demand for Indian migrants. Within this duality, there is considerable scope to leverage migration to drive development and growth, as well as global integration. On the other hand, migrant protection, welfare, and rights remain a pressing concern.

The sustained rise in remittances received by India underscores its importance in the development process, particularly from the perspective of a dependent family. On the macroeconomic front, it is an important source of foreign currency, helping cushion against external shocks and trade deficits. At the same time, it is important to note that remittance flows to India are higher than inward FDI flows. Migration from India is likely to remain robust in the future, particularly due to rising demographic pressures, aspirations for upward mobility and global interdependencies. A holistic migration governance framework grounded in data and migrant-centric policies is essential to harmonise its benefits and mitigate associated risks.

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*Dr. Kishlay Kirti is a Research Associate at the Indian Council of World Affairs (ICWA)
Disclaimer: The views expressed are personal.

Endnotes

^[i]  International Organization for Migration, “World Migration Report 2024,” International Organization for Migration (Geneva, 2024).

^[ii] Census of India, “Migration Table,” Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India (Government of India, New Delhi, 2011).

^[iii] Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, “Annexure ‘A’ Data on Indian Diaspora Abroad,” 2025, https://www.mea.gov.in/Images/CPV/1508-12-02-2026-en.pdf.

^[iv] Khadria, B., Kumar, P., Sarkar, S., & Sharma, R. “International migration policy: Issues and perspectives for India,” (IMDS Working Paper 1. New Delhi: International Migration and Diaspora Studies Project, ZHCES, JNU, 2008).

^[v] Rikil Chyrmang and Kishlay Kirti. “International Migration in Contemporary India” in Keshri K. et al., (ed.) COVID-19 and Labor Migration in India (Routledge India, 2026) p. 95.

^[vi] Zachariah, K. C., Prakash, B. A., & Rajan, S. I. “The Impact of Immigration Policy on Indian Contract Migrants: The Case of the United Arab Emirates,” International Migration, Vol. 41, No.4 (2003), pp. 161-172.

[vii] Jafar, K. “Migration-Led Development in Kerala: Looking Beyond Growth and Remittances,” Artha Vijnana, Vol. 65, No.2, (2023), pp. 153-170.

[viii] Khadri, S. A. “Highly-skilled professionals in the GCC: Migration policies and government outlook,” in Philippe Fargues and Nasra M. Shah (ed.) Migration to the Gulf: Policies in sending and receiving countries (Gulf Research Centre Cambridge, 2018), pp.81-103.

[ix] Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, “Annexure-A, Destination-Wise (Country) Statistics Of Indian Nationals Who Disclosed Their Purpose As Study/Education While Going Abroad For: 2020 To 2024,” 2025, https://www.mea.gov.in/Images/CPV/RS-565-1-24-07-2025.pdf.

[x] International Organization for Migration, “World Migration Report 2024,” International Organization for Migration (Geneva, 2024).

[xi] Dhirendra Gajbhiye et al., “Changing Dynamics of India’s Remittances- Insights from the Sixth Round of India’s Remittances Survey,” RBI Bulletin March 2025, (2025), pp. 85-103.

^[xii]International Organization for Migration. “World Migration Report 2024,” International Organization for Migration (Geneva, 2024).

^[xiii] India issues two kinds of Passport: i) ECR: This category of passport holders need to go through a mandatory emigration clearance from the Protector of Emigrants (POE) before traveling to 19 designated countries. Such passport holders are less educated (below matriculation) and involved in unskilled work; ii) ECNR: This category of passport holders does not require any clearance.

[xiv] Kishlay Kirti. “Migration between India and Nepal: An Appraisal,” Demography India, Vol. 50 No.1, (2021), pp. 163- 173.

[xv] Dhirendra Gajbhiye et al., “Changing Dynamics of India’s Remittances- Insights from the Sixth Round of India’s Remittances Survey,” RBI Bulletin March 2025, (2025), pp. 85-103.

[xvi] Ibid

[xvii] Ibid