Indian Council of World Affairs

Abstract: Oil has been the backbone of the Saudi Arabian economy ever since it was first discovered in the country in 1938. However, in an age where several countries are moving away from hydrocarbon dependence, Saudi Arabia has also been trying to diversify its economy. Vision 2030 is the flagship programme that, among other things, seeks to steer the Saudi economy away from its hydrocarbon dependence. As the economy diversifies, the social structure has also seen a marked change. One of the impacts that this programme has had is on the status of women in the Kingdom. 

As the Vision document completes a decade in 2025, the position of women in Saudi society and the economy has seen a marked advancement. In this context, this paper seeks to trace the background and rationale behind Vision 2030 and how this has impacted the position of women in the last ten years. 

Introduction 

The Saudi state was founded in 1932 under King Abdulaziz al Saud. Six years later, in February 1938, oil was struck, which changed the fate of the desert kingdom. The oil wealth made the rule of Al Sauds more secure, as the state was able to roll out what is called the ‘cradle to grave welfare system’.^[i] While Islam has played a pivotal role in providing legitimacy to the Al Saud kings, who are also known as ‘The Custodians of the two Holy Mosques’,^[ii] the advent of oil gave them an economic clout that has very few parallels in the world. It constituted the mainstay of the Saudi economy, accounting for about 90 percent of its GDP until Vision 2030 was launched in the year 2015.^[iii]

Saudi Arabia’s close ties with the United States were largely facilitated by its oil resource, because of which the landmark ‘oil for security pact’^[iv] could be struck between the then President of the US, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and the Al Saud patriarch, King Abdulaziz bin Abdul Rahman al Saud, aboard the USS Quincy in 1945. Owing to its rich hydrocarbon base, Saudi Arabia emerged as the de facto leader of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). Being a swing producer, it wielded power to regulate the global oil market, especially during times when global oil supply was in crisis, for instance, during the 1973 oil crisis, the 1980s oil glut and the 2008 global financial crisis, among other instances.

However, despite deriving its power from its oil resources, hydrocarbons are a volatile resource, and heavy reliance on them can be detrimental for a country in the long run. While the global shift away from oil began to take shape after the 1973 oil crisis,^[v] it gained significant traction in 2015 following the Paris Agreement. Moreover, the shale oil revolution in the US made it less dependent on oil imports from countries like Saudi Arabia, and imports dipped by 85 percent since 2003.^[vi] These factors led Saudi Arabia to adopt a robust policy of diversification wherein it aimed to reduce its dependence on oil resources. This resulted in the ambitious plan called Vision 2030.

Diversification is not only limited to the economic sphere, especially in the case of Saudi Arabia, where oil being its economic backbone also gave the Al Sauds legitimacy and formed the basis of the social contract, whereby the state provided a robust system of public welfare mechanisms in exchange for people’s loyalty to the regime, between the rulers and the Saudi people. When this economic backbone is being replaced, it also means an overhaul of the social contract and translates into a marked change in the societal outlook of the country. One of the most visible arenas where this can be seen is in the status of women in the Kingdom, which has undergone significant change in the period after the Vision 2030 was announced. This paper seeks to analyse the gender aspect of the diversification process in Saudi Arabia and understand how economic reforms under the aegis of Vision 2030 have led to a positive change in terms of women’s empowerment in the Kingdom.

What Is Vision 2030, and What Are Its Components?

Oil being a mercurial resource, despite its instrumental revenues, led Saudi Arabia to diversify its economy. Efforts to diversify the economy had been ongoing since the 1970s, yet no significant change was witnessed.^[vii] Moreover, when oil prices dipped from $115 per barrel in 2013 to $40 per barrel in 2015, public finances were heavily impacted. This made it necessary for Saudi Arabia to think radically about serious economic reforms. This gave birth to the ambitious plan called Vision 2030, wherein Saudi Arabia sought to diversify its economy, reduce its hydrocarbon dependency and work towards sustainable development by the year 2030.

Although it was officially unveiled in April 2016, Saudi Vision 2030 was in place since 2015, shortly after King Salman ascended to the throne appointed Prince Mohammad bin Salman as Deputy Crown Prince.^[viii] The Vision has three broad themes: a vibrant society, a thriving economy, and an ambitious nation.^[ix] While the Vision 2030 document presents a broad overview of the diversification objectives, the National Transformation Programme and the Fiscal Balance Programme lay out the objectives more broadly.^[x]

Several targets come under the theme of a vibrant society, including increasing average life expectancy, achieving a tenth place in the Social Capital Index Ranking, increasing household spending on local culture and entertainment to 6 percent and doubling Saudi’s presence on the UNESCO World Heritage List.^[xi] Under the theme of a thriving economy, the targets include increasing non-oil exports, raising private sector contribution to 65 per cent, increasing FDI contribution to GDP to 5.7 per cent, entering the top 10 list in the Global Competitive Index, increasing Public Investment Fund (PIF) assets from 159 billion to 1.86 trillion dollars, increasing localisation of the oil and gas sector to 75 per cent, 30 per cent women’s participation in the workforce, and lowering the unemployment level to 7 percent.^[xii] Under the theme of ‘an ambitious nation’, the targets include increasing the nonprofit sector to 5 per cent of the GDP, increasing household saving from 6 per cent to 10 per cent of the total income and reaching 20th place in the Government Effectiveness Index.^[xiii]

Furthermore, to keep track of the progress made and to ensure effective implementation, the Vision Realisation Programmes (VRPs) outline the detailed initiatives to implement Vision 2030. As such, there are 11 VPRs, which include the Fiscal Sector Development Programme, Housing Programme, National Transformation Programme, Public Investment Fund Programme, Fiscal Sustainability Programme, Human Capability Development Programme, Pilgrim Experience Programme, Health Sector Transformation Programme, National Industrial Development and Logistics Programme, Privatisation Programme, and Quality of Life Programme.^[xiv]  

The three themes and the 11 VRPs reveal that Saudi Arabia requires a complete and comprehensive overhaul of the decades-old functioning of the system for it to achieve the objectives of Vision 2030. Women constitute a critical component through which this can be achieved. Women appear explicitly in one VRP: the National Transformation Programme (increase women’s participation in the labour market). However, the pivotal role of women in realisation of the overall vision is implicit, and the state has taken several measures to help women become more active in the Saudi economy as well as society. 

Gender and Vision 2030

Women’s empowerment has been at the heart of Saudi Vision 2030. The most dramatic change in the country, among others, has been in the arena of gender. Saudi Arabia has been a traditional society rooted in tribal culture where women were predominantly seen in the domestic sphere. However, things are changing at a rapid pace. It is important to note here that the winds of change in Saudi Arabia vis-à-vis women began blowing before Vision 2030 started to officially push for women’s empowerment.

As noted above, the Vision document itself explicitly mentions women once in the VRP on the National Transformation Programme, which states increasing women’s participation in the labour market as one of the strategic objectives. While this is an overarching goal and requires several micro-level policies and efforts to materialise, women’s role is important and instrumental in realising the overall objective of Vision 2030. As such, the state has undertaken several measures to boost Saudi women’s participation and visibility in the economic and social sector as well as in legal terms.

Political Sphere

Women are also gradually becoming more visible in the political sphere, being appointed to positions that were previously dominated by men. Princess Rima Bint Bandar became the first Saudi woman to be appointed the ambassador of Saudi Arabia to the United States in 2019.^[xv] This was followed by the appointment of Amal al-Mouallimi as the ambassador to Norway in 2020.^[xvi] Since 2013, 30 out of the 150 seats have been reserved for women in the Shura Council. In September 2024, 19 new women representatives were elected to the Council.^[xvii] Apart from the Shura Council, women now hold key ministerial positions in the country as well. Al-Shehana bint Saleh al-Azzaz became the first female Vice Secretary General of the Council of Ministers.^[xviii] In 2024, she was appointed as the adviser to the Royal Court.^[xix] Princess Haifa Mohammad al Saud was appointed as the Vice Minister of Tourism in 2022.^[xx] These positions may not be the most powerful, but they give women a seat at the table in diplomatic and political conversations, allowing them to participate in ways that were not possible before. Since 2018, women have also begun joining the military^[xxi] which is significant, as the military sector has been the most masculine sector, not only in Saudi Arabia but also around the world.

Economic Sector

Women’s participation in the economic sector has seen a major boost since the introduction of Vision 2030 and continues to rise. In the second quarter of 2025, the total Saudi female workforce accounted for 34.5 per cent^[xxii] compared to 23.2 per cent in 2016^[xxiii] and was even higher in the third quarter of 2024, where the female workforce accounted for about 36 per cent.^[xxiv] The target initially set out in 2016 was to have a 30 per cent female workforce by 2030.^[xxv] However, having clearly surpassed the number well before the set target, it was revised to 40 per cent female workforce by 2030.^[xxvi] Most of the women in the workforce are employed in the private sector. As of 2024, the private sector employed 9,96,929 women as compared to the governmental sector, which accounted for 5,06,028.^[xxvii] The public sector employed the least number of women in 2024, with 1,57,603 women employed.^[xxviii]  Major strides have been made in the hospitality and tourism sector, where job growth was about 10 per cent annually from 2010 to 2020.^[xxix] Within this, women constituted 22 percent, which has grown to 45 percent in 2023.^[xxx] Saudi women are also increasing their footprint in entrepreneurship, and as per the data available in 2024, they owned 45 per cent of the country’s Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs).^[xxxi]

According to a survey conducted in 2023, the average salary of Saudi women employed in the public sector stood at SR 12,872 compared to the average male income of SR 14,053.^[xxxii] On the other hand, in the private sector, women earned an average of SR 5,373 compared to their male counterparts, which stood at SR 8,953.^[xxxiii] This shows that there is a gulf in terms of pay parity in the public and the private sectors. Notwithstanding, these figures point towards a positive change since 2018, when Saudi Arabia ranked 107 in the worldwide gender pay gap, with women in the private sector earning 56 percent less than their male counterparts.^[xxxiv] The progress made from 2018 to 2023 gives hope for better gender pay parity by 2030.

Graph of Female Labour Force Participation since 2017. Source: https://www.theglobaleconomy.com/Saudi-Arabia/Female_labor_force_participation/

Female Labour Force Participation in Saudi Arabia since 1990. Source: https://www.theglobaleconomy.com/Saudi-Arabia/Female_labor_force_participation/

Social and Cultural Sector

Saudi women have also made considerable progress in the social and cultural sector in the last decade. While the arts and crafts have been an old heritage in the country, the sector has found a new lease of life following the Vision 2030 announcement and particularly since 2018, when the Ministry of Culture was established. Following this, the government started the National Cultural Strategy with 11 cultural commissions looking after subsectors like arts, films, culinary, fashion, museums, etc.^[xxxv] As a result of these efforts, the cultural sector has grown up to contribute SR 60 billion to the Saudi GDP.^[xxxvi] As investments in the sector continue to grow, Saudi female artists, for example, like Manal al Dowayan, are now recognised and renowned across the world for their artistic portrayals of themes from climate to society.^[xxxvii] On the other hand, the film industry has also seen women come to the forefront with female directors like Haifa al Mansour, whose film Wadjda was nominated for the Academy Awards.^[xxxviii]

Sports is another sector where Saudi women have seen increasing participation. In July 2020, the Minister of Sports, Prince Abdulaziz bin Turki al Faisal, announced that a new sports academy named Mahd Sports Academy would be launched that would train both male and female athletes in the age group of 6–14 years in 20 different sports.^[xxxix] The Sports Academy is also touted to be the world’s largest sports facility.^[xl] According to the 2024 data, 883 Saudi female athletes have won medals or awards in swimming, with taekwondo following closely at 661 females.^[xli] This progress is unprecedented for women in Saudi Arabia that has been made possible by the reforms.

Number of medals or awards received by Saudi females in local or international sports championships. Source: Saudi Women’s Statistics Report, 2024

Education Sector

Even before the Vision 2030 was announced, the education sector had a substantial proportion of women, especially in the public sector education, as it was one of the few areas where women were socially accepted to work in.^[xlii] Now, as Saudi Arabia aims to increase women’s participation in the workforce, education has gained a renewed emphasis. The state is proactively taking steps towards bridging the gap in women’s education. In the past, women were mostly concentrated in primary and secondary education. But in 2019, the number of women in higher education rose to 70.9 per cent as against a mere 25.2 per cent in 2000.^[xliii]

The government is also promoting women’s education in STEM fields (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) as well as technical and vocational education and training (TVET), which earlier were considered to be second-tier educational pursuits for women.^[xliv] Saudi Arabia was among the lowest-ranking countries in 2016 in terms of women in TVET.^[xlv] However, over the past decade, 17,959 women enrolled in TVET programmes across 29 colleges in the country.^[xlvi] The Kingdom now boasts of 14 international technical colleges for girls, 37 female technical colleges and three digital technical colleges that are providing degrees to over 21,000 female students as of 2022.^[xlvii]

Source: https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/arabvoices/saudi-arabia-s-transformative-journey-in-empowering-women-in-technical-and-vocational-training

As the thrust of the Vision document is to steer the Saudi economy away from oil, so the STEM field becomes an important sector. Therefore, increasing the number of women studying in this field, which was primarily male-dominated 10 years back, goes beyond the issue of gender equality for Saudi Arabia and is also a matter of economic necessity. As of 2025, women constituted over 40 per cent of STEM students in universities across Saudi Arabia.^[xlviii] The computer and information technology sector has seen a remarkable growth of 60 per cent from 2020 to 2025.^[xlix]

Analysis

In the past decade since Vision 2030 came into being, Saudi Arabia has seen some transformative changes. Together with reducing its oil dependence, Saudi Arabia has also empowered its women population. Women’s participation in the workforce has grown exponentially, and they are better educated than was the case before. Moreover, with state policies like banning gender discrimination at work and enabling women to drive and travel without male company, women’s empowerment has been further boosted. This is evident in the ways in which women are carving their way in arts, cinema and other cultural sectors. Various programmes have been initiated that train women entrepreneurs, giving them an opportunity to open their own business ventures. The growing number of women in the economic, cultural, and educational sectors is helping Saudi Arabia rebrand itself in the world on two levels: first, it has more than just oil to offer to the world, and second, it is increasingly becoming an open, tolerant, and modern society.

The state has also taken legislative measures to aid women’s empowerment within Vision 2030. One of them is the 2018 announcement that allowed women to drive independently. The Wusool program is another example of a state initiative wherein Saudi female workers can avail transportation facilities with an 80 per cent discount on fares.^[l] On the other hand, the Qurrah programme provides working mothers with accredited nurseries and day-care centres for their children.^[li] These programmes aid women’s participation across sectors.

However, there are areas where Saudi Arabia can improve. Most of the women in the workforce continue to be absorbed by the private sector. This shows that the public sector is still somewhat hesitant to hire women. While state legislation regarding anti-harassment and non-discrimination are welcome steps, more concerted efforts need to be made to encourage the public sector to hire more women workers. Although the gender pay gap has comparatively reduced, it is still substantial. On the other hand, while the Qurrah programme provides childcare, the country needs to adopt a centralised system for maternity benefits.^[lii] Women have made particular inroads in sectors like retail, hospitality, teaching, healthcare, civil service and tourism.^[liii] But at the same time, the percentage of women in the workforce has been hovering around 33–36 percent since 2020, which is indicative of a stagnating trend. Moreover, it is still rare to find women in the top leadership positions. In the education sector as well, the number of females in tertiary education has not seen a substantial increase in the last decade. In terms of socio-cultural development, women’s representation remains somewhat limited.

Saudi Arabia has been ranked 132 in the Global Gender Gap Report 2025.^[liv] While this is an improvement, it also shows that the country has a long way to go before it can achieve gender parity.

Conclusion

A decade into Saudi Vision 2030 has seen the country embark on one of its most transformative journeys. It started with the urge to diversify the Saudi economy, build new industries, and prepare the state to replace its economic base of hydrocarbons. While these continue to be in focus, what the Vision framework has also done is change the societal dynamics of the country. This shows that the economy is not a standalone entity, and any effort to change the economic base will inadvertently change how the society functions. Moreover, economic diversification of the scale that Saudi Arabia is seeking to do cannot be possible without bringing in women. Thus, women’s increasing participation in the workforce, growing presence in the cultural space, and strengthening of their educational profiles are not peripheral outcomes of the economic diversification plan but have become central pillars.

While statistics show an encouraging trend, some areas still need improvement. The public sector needs to take more active measures to hire women, legislation regarding maternity benefits needs to be streamlined, and more efforts are needed to achieve gender parity. At the same time, it is pertinent to realise the historical context of the country in question. Given the way Saudi society and the state have operated, one cannot expect a rapid overhaul of age-old traditions. While Vision 2030 has paved the way for change, achieving gender equality in Saudi Arabia will require patience and  time, nonetheless unprecedented transformation has begun. 

*****

*Stuti Gogoi, Research Intern, Indian Council of World Affairs, New Delhi
Disclaimer: Views expressed are personal. 

Endnotes

[i] Riedel, Bruce. 2017. “Saudi Arabia Shifts Policy from Risk Averse to Downright Dangerous” Yale Global Online, November 28. Accessed December 11, 2025.

[ii] Sayeed, Ausaf. 2025. “History of the Title of the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques”, West Asia Review, March 23. Accessed December 11, 2025. https://westasiareview.com/history-of-the-title-custodian-of-the-two-holy-mosques/

[iii] Nouri, Majde. 2025. “Saudi Arabia Economic Diversification: Saudi Economy Attracts the World’s Attention” CFI, May 14. Accessed November 15, 2025. https://cfi.trade/en/uk/blog/mena/saudi-arabia-economic-diversification-the-saudi-economy-attracts-the-worlds-attention

[iv] Spaldin, Jenny. 2023. “The Deal that Keeps the Oil Flowing”, Epicentre, June 1. Accessed 11 December 2025. https://epicenter.wcfia.harvard.edu/blog/deal-keeps-oil-flowing

[v] Ross, Michael L. 2013. “How the 1973 Oil Embargo Saved the Planet: OPEC gave the Rest of the World a Headstart Against Climate Change”, Foreign Affairs, October 15. Accessed December 11, 2025. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/north-america/2013-10-15/how-1973-oil-embargo-saved-planet

[vi]  Blas, Javier. 2024. “US reliance on Saudi Oil is Nearing its Endgame.” Money Control, January 14. Accessed December 2, 2025. https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/opinion/us-reliance-on-saudi-oil-is-nearing-its-endgame-12910027.html

[vii]Ghafar, Abdel Abdel. 2018. “A New Kingdom of Saud?” The Cairo Review of Global Affairs. Accessed November 19, 2025  https://www.thecairoreview.com/essays/a-new-kingdom-of-saud/

[viii] Grand, Stephen & Wolff, Katherine. 2020. “The Origins of Vision 2030” Atlantic Council. Accessed 19 November 2025. https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/resrep29468.6.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3A53371c47f9449cfb03a7f46133db4073&ab_segments=&initiator=&acceptTC=1

[ix]Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. “Vision 2030: A Vibrant Society” Accessed November 19,2025. https://www.vision2030.gov.sa/en/overview/pillars/a-vibrant-society

[x] op. Cit. 2

[xi]Schulte, Alex. 2025. “Saudi Vision 2030: Saudi Arabia’s Transformation Programme Explained”. June 11. Accessed November 20, 2025.  https://www.centuroglobal.com/article/saudi-arabia-vision-2030/

[xii] Ibid.

[xiii] Ibid.

[xiv]Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. “Vision Realisation Programs". Accessed 20 November 2025.  https://www.vision2030.gov.sa/en/explore/programs

[xv] Parveen, Musrrat. 2023. “Reflection of Saudi Women’s Participation and Leadership: A Study on Gender Differences in Leadership and Structural Barriers”. Accessed December 2, 2025.

[xvi] Ibid.

[xvii] Al Amir, Khitam. 2024. “19 More Women Join Saudi Shura Council, Female Representation Reaches 20%”. Gulf News, 3 September. Accessed December 2, 2025. https://gulfnews.com/world/gulf/saudi/19-more-women-join-saudi-shura-council-female-representation-reaches-20-1.1725357429952

[xviii] “Female Leadership in Saudi Arabia’s Government” Accessed December 2, 2025. https://www.allocationassist.com/female-leadership-in-saudi-arabias-government/ 

[xix] “Saudi Arabia Issues Royal Decrees”. Arab News, May 15, 2024. Accessed December 2, 2025. https://www.arabnews.com/node/2510741/saudi-arabia#:~:text=Khalid%20bin%20Mohammed%20bin%20Abdulaziz,Saudi%20Authority%20for%20Intellectual%20Property.

[xx] Ibid.

[xxi] Alfayez, Talal Khalid., & Almohamadi, Sara Fouad. 2018. “Women soldiers – Another milestone for Saudi Arabia”.  6 March. Accessed December 2, 2025. https://www.iiss.org/online-analysis/online-analysis/2018/03/saudi-arabia-women-soldiers/

[xxii]General Authority of Statistics. 2025. “Labour Market Statistics Q2 OF 2025” September 30. Accessed 21 November 2025  https://www.stats.gov.sa/en/w/news/93

[xxiii]Polok, Beata., Akeel, Maha. 2024. “Vision 2030 has done wonders for women. But there is still room to enhance their economic roles in Saudi Arabia”. October 16. Accessed November 21, 2025. https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/menasource/vision-2030-women-economy-saudi-arabia/

[xxiv]General Authority for Statistics. 2024. “Labour Force Participation Rate of Saudi Females Reaches 36.2%”. December 31. Accessed November 21, 2025.  https://www.stats.gov.sa/en/w/news/6

[xxv]Op. Cit. 11

[xxvi]Proctor, Rebecca Anne. 2023. “Saudi Females are Driving SME Boom”. Arab News, July 10. Accessed November 21, 2025.  https://www.arabnews.com/node/2334436/business-economy

[xxvii] General Authority of Statistics. 2024. “Saudi Women’s Statistics Report 2024”. Accessed 22 November 2025 https://www.stats.gov.sa/documents/20117/2435273/Saudi+Women+Statistics+2024_EN+%281%29.pdf/9aa5a79c-cea5-9239-bd9f-ece710b6c33d?t=1755765504279

[xxviii] Ibid

[xxix]El-Komy, Farah. 2024. “Vision 2030: Empowered Women, Transformed Kingdom”. Al Habtoor Research Centre, December 17. Accessed November 25, 2025 https://www.habtoorresearch.com/programmes/vision-2030-empowered-women-transformed-kingdom/

[xxx] Ibid

[xxxi]El-Shaeri, Nour. 2024. “Saudi Arabia: A Beacon for Female Entrepreneurship according to Industry Leaders”. Arab News, April 12. Accessed November 28, 2025.  https://www.arabnews.com/node/2491916/business-economy

[xxxii]Global Business Outlook. 2023. “Gender Pay Gap Narrows in Saudi Arabia”. December 22. Accessed November 23, 2025. https://globalbusinessoutlook.com/finance/gender-pay-gap-narrows-saudi/

[xxxiii] 2023. “Average Monthly Salary of Male and Female Saudis Accounts for $2,632 and $1,674” Saudi Gazette, December 18. Accessed November 23, 2025. https://www.zawya.com/en/economy/gcc/average-monthly-salary-of-male-and-female-saudis-accounts-for-2-632-and-1-674-p5y92bbk

[xxxiv]2018. “Saudi Women Paid Up to 56% less”, Arabian News, January 18. Accessed November 23, 2025. https://www.arabianbusiness.com/politics-economics/387618-saudi-women-paid-up-to-56-less

[xxxv] Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. 2019. “Our Cultural Vision for the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia” Ministry of Culture. Accessed November 24, 2025.

[xxxvi] Al Saud, Badr bin Abdullah bin Farhan. 2025. “Cultural Investment: A Mine of Promising Opportunities sin Saudi Arabia” Asharq al Awsat, November 13. Accessed November 24, 2025. https://aawsat.com/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%A3%D9%8A/5208249-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%AB%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%8A-%D9%85%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%85-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%B5-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%AF%D8%A9-%D9%81%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%B9%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A9

[xxxvii]“Female Artists Lead Creative Awakening” Visit Saudi. Accessed November 24, 2025 https://www.visitsaudi.com/en/stories/female-artists-lead-creative-awakening

[xxxviii] Flynn, Patrice. 2015. “Metaphors of Resistance: What the Film Wadjda Says About Present Day Saudi Arabia as seen from the perspective of a female guest worker”. International Research Journal of Arts an Social Sciences. Accessed November 24, 2025. https://www.interesjournals.org/articles/metaphors-of-resistance-what-the-film-wadjda-saysabout-presentday-saudi-arabia-as-seen-from-theperspective-of-a-female-g.pdf

[xxxix]“Female Athletes Change the Game in Saudi Arabia” Visit Saudi. Accessed November 24, 2025.   https://www.visitsaudi.com/en/stories/female-athletes-change-the-game-in-saudi

[xl] Ibid

[xli] Op. Cit. 15

[xlii]Almutarie, Aljawhara O. 2025. “Joining the Workforce, Saudi Women and Vision 2030”. In Gender Economics and Gender Pay Gap - Trends and Explanations edited by Feyza Bhatti. InTechOpen. Accessed November 24, 2025  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/1196624

[xliii]Op Cit 17.

[xliv]El-Kogali, Safaa el Tayab; Pankratova, Ekaterina; AlRayess, Dana & Loots, Sonja. 2025. “Saudi Arabia’s Transformative Journey in Empowering Women in Technical and Vocational Training” World Bank, 22 September. Accessed November 27, 2025 https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/arabvoices/saudi-arabia-s-transformative-journey-in-empowering-women-in-technical-and-vocational-training

[xlv] Ibid.

[xlvi] Ibid.

[xlvii] Ibid.

[xlviii]Set up in SA. 2025. “Women in STEM: Saudi Arabia’s Push to Empower Female Tech Leaders”. August 24. Accessed November 27, 2025.  https://setupinsa.com/women-in-stem-saudi-arabias-push-to-empower-female-tech-leaders/

[xlix] Ibid

[l]Polok, Beata & Saci, Karima. 2025. “Promoting Sustainable Women’s Empowerment in Saudi Arabia in Accessing the Job Market: Legal, Financial Transformation”. In Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Creativity, Technology and Sustainability. Springer Nature. Accessed December 1, 2025.    https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-97-8588-9_31

[li] Ibid.

[lii] Op. CIt. 11

[liii] Adamczyk, Alicia. 2025. “Saudi Arabia has doubled the share of women in the workforce since 2015 – but obstacles remain.” Fortune, 23 May. Accessed December 2, 2025. https://fortune.com/2025/05/23/saudi-arabia-women-workforce-progress-and-obstacles/

[liv]World Economic Forum. 2025. “The Global Gender Gap Index 2025”. Accessed December 1, 2025.