“Now I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds”, J. Robert Oppenheimer famously quoted these lines from an Indian scripture, upon seeing the detonation of the first nuclear weapon.[i] This moment marked the culmination of the United States' Manhattan Project[ii] and forever changed the international politics discourse. Nuclear weapons became the ultimate strategic weapons, reshaping global power hierarchies. Following this, as the former Foreign Minister of India, Jaswant Singh observed, “a form of “nuclear apartheid” took shape—wherein a select group of states retained the right to possess nuclear weapons, while others were systematically denied such capabilities”.[iii] This selective nuclear global order was institutionalized through the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in Vienna emerging as a critical platform for global nuclear politics. As political scientist Priya Chacko noted, India approached nuclear energy through its civilizational and moral framework. Within this framework, the country has consistently advocated the use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes while simultaneously advocating for universal, verifiable, and non-discriminatory nuclear disarmament. As India turns its gaze towards Small Modular Reactors (SMRs), this historical approach of India continues to shape it’s present engagement with nuclear energy. This emphasis on SMRs is consistent with India’s commitment to sustainable, peaceful, responsible use of nuclear energy and to exploring emerging technologies in this sector for social benefit. As India engages with SMRs, it is making an honest attempt to meaningfully contribute to the global discourse on responsible and peaceful use of nuclear energy and reinforce its commitment to a nuclear weapons-free world. 

Preaching Peace, Practising Power 

“It is not enough to take this weapon out of the hands of the soldiers it must be put into the hands of those who will know how to strip its military casing and adapt it to the arts of peace” this is some snippets from the historic ‘Atoms for Peace’ speech given by U.S president Dwight Eisenhower at the United Nations about the steps needed to ensure peace in the new atomic age.[iv] This excerpt from his speech encapsulates the entire global nuclear discourse where U.S. and later the nuclear countries self- identified themselves as nuclear haves and the rest of the world as nuclear have-nots. Through the Non-Proliferation treaty (NPT) of 1968 (described as the cornerstone of the global nuclear order) a grand bargain (non-proliferation vs nuclear disarmament) was arrived between nuclear weapon states (NWS) (haves) and non-nuclear weapon states (NNWS) (have not) countries.[v] NWS wanted to arrest the horizontal spread of nuclear weapons (proliferation) beyond the five nuclear weapon countries and NNWS pushed for peaceful use of nuclear energy and later negotiating the reduction and ultimately the elimination of nuclear weapons (nuclear disarmament).[vi] The treaty institutionalized the notion that only handful of countries are responsible enough to own nuclear weapons, while others should focus on generating sustainable energy using nuclear technology amidst strict technology controls and verification mechanisms. Vienna based International Atomic Energy Commission (IAEA) which was set up in 1957(an autonomous organisation under United Nations) was given the primary responsibility to enforce NPT[vii]. As Elisabeth Roehrlich has pointed that "the IAEA had to balance the aim of promoting peaceful nuclear energy with the imperative of preventing its use for weapons along with ensuring safety & security."[viii]

IAEA or the nuclear watchdog as it is commonly called has emerged as active site of nuclear politics. IAEA attempts to balance the conflicting interests of NPT recognised nuclear-armed states, non-nuclear states, and self-declared nuclear states.

Lifting the Veil: India and the Nuclear

India called out this selective morality and advocated either for a global nuclear disarmament or nuclear equality. But the nuclear weapon states showed no signs of moving decisively towards a world free of atomic catastrophe.[ix] With China acceding to NPT I in 1992 and, NPT being extended indefinitely and unconditionally in 1995 thereby perpetuating the existence of nuclear weapons in the hands of P5 countries only, who sought to maintain the nuclear status quo along with modernising their nuclear arsenals limited India’s choices.[x]Amidst these narrowed strategic options for India, it exercised the nuclear option in 1998 when it successfully carried out the nuclear tests. The larger approach of the country towards the nuclear tests was through an anti-colonial perspective. Right from the outset, science and morality have occupied a central place in India's nuclear discourse, which is anchored in its anti-colonial struggles and a broader commitment to what Chacko describes as "ethical modernity."[xi]Indian civilisation’s centrality which emphasises on ethical and moral conduct has commanded India’s nuclear posture i.e. the simultaneous pursuit of nuclear technology for peaceful purposes while promoting global nuclear disarmament. India has always been a responsible nuclear power, a restrained nuclear doctrine that India practices and the Indo-US nuclear deal is a testament to the same. And as Ambassador Nutan Mahawar has noted, “India has a long-standing tradition of disarmament and espousal of disarmament is not a sign of weakness or underdevelopment but is symbolic of richness of thought, spiritual strength and the spirit of universal brotherhood.”[xii] Through SMRs, India is trying to do the same.

This has led to India becoming a responsible and influential player in the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), despite not being a signatory to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). India, as a founding member of IAEA has consistently supported the IAEA’s mission of promoting the safe, secure, and peaceful use of nuclear energy. Till the time global nuclear disarmament becomes reality, India wants to concentrate on the peaceful and responsible use of nuclear technology for sustainable development and SMRs are a step in this direction.

SWOT Analysis of SMRs

Since nuclear is a dual use technology, any nuclear innovation especially in the name of sustainable energy is conceived as perpetrating a trap to develop nuclear weapons.  It has been a struggle in general for developing countries justify peaceful sustainable use of nuclear energy. But with the advancement of nuclear technology, small nuclear reactors have drawn global attention. These small sized modular reactors, aim, to fix the dilemma of the nuclear. SMRs represent a shift in nuclear technology towards scalability, flexibility, and safety as they can be constructed in a modular format as it’s capacity ranges from under 30 MW (e) to 300 MW (e) as opposed to the conventional nuclear plants output exceeding 700 MW (e).[xiii] Their comparatively small design, factory fabrication and on-site assembly leads to significant reduction in the construction cost and time[xiv].  

Fig1. Source: IAEA https://www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/what-are-small-modular-reactors-smrs

There are more than 80 SMR designs and concepts globally, many countries  are in various stages of development, and some countries claim to be at the deployment phase of the SMR cycle.[xv] The development of SMRs offers logistical and infrastructural advantages and is particularly favourable for the regions that have limited land resource and paucity of grid connectivity.[xvi]Currently there are four SMRs in advanced stages of construction in China, Argentina, and Russia, while several countries are in the R&D phase. Due to their compact size and lesser operating parts, it is easy to ensure their safety which leads to better control along with the management. 

The IAEA is systematically coordinating the efforts of its Member States to develop various types of SMRs by helping them to find, develop requisite technologies and helping the countries in managing their nuclear reactors.[xvii] SMRs incorporate advanced safety mechanisms which makes SMRs inherently safer compared to larger reactors.

Along with the strengths and opportunities that SMRs offer, it suffers from weaknesses and threats. The cost of developing SMRs is high and the regulatory framework is still evolving which necessitates a cautioned approach towards safety, security on one hand and sustainable energy on the other hand. Further, there will be nuclear waste generation from SMRs which will be very less in quantity as compared to the large conventional plants, but it will be there thus posing a waste management challenge.[xviii] Also, adequate proliferation controls on nuclear materials would need to be put in place.[xix]

Small is beautiful: India and SMRs

As a responsible nuclear power, India has once again opted for its “ethical modernity” approach while exploring the potential of SMRs. At the forefront is NITI Aayog along with the Department of Atomic Energy. India sees SMRs as a critical nuclear technology for generating peaceful and sustainable energy which aligns with India’s net-zero emissions target of 2070.[xx] Research and development on SMRs are underway at the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC). For example, the Bharat Small Reactor (BSR)which is a modified version of India’s existing Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor (PWHR) will  have a capacity of 200 MW (Megawatt) and it will be fuelled by “slightly enriched uranium”.[xxi] For example, the BSMR-200 will be an addition to India’s technological spectrum. India aims to deploy 40-50 SMRs to replace its captive thermal power plants.[xxii] The Indian government has approved a Nuclear Energy Mission with an outlay of ₹20,000 crore and it is dedicated to the research and development of SMRs, with a focus on their indigenization.[xxiii]

India’s international collaborations with countries like France, the United States, Russia etc is also helping to advance India’s SMR technology. India is strategically realigning it’s nuclear trajectory, for example, India and France have signed a letter of intent to co-develop Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) and Advanced Modular Reactors (AMRs) for civilian use.[xxiv] These collaborations are backed by the amendments India intends to introduce in its nuclear liability law  for which the government has constituted a committee.[xxv] India is gesturing openness to greater international collaboration and private sector involvement. India's broadening discussions with partners such as the United States points to its strategic intention to diversify nuclear partnerships and ethical responsible use of nuclear technology.[xxvi]

After the landmark Indo-US civil nuclear agreement in 2008, the United States has taken yet another significant decision to enable India’s participation in next-generation nuclear energy tech. On March 26, 2025, the U.S. Department of Energy granted clearance to Holtec International to transfer unclassified Small Modular Reactor (SMR) technology to three Indian entities—Larsen & Toubro (L&T), Tata Consulting Engineers, and [xxvii]Holtec Asia, Holtec’s regional subsidiary.[xxviii] This authorization facilitates the design and construction of SMRs in India and symbolizes a pivotal moment in India–U.S. nuclear cooperation, particularly with the ongoing protectionist US under the Trump administration and China’s active pursuit of SMR leadership.[xxix] However, for India to fully realize the full potential of SMRs, it will be needing sustained private sector participation, robust regulatory reforms, and diversified international collaboration and cooperation.

As India engages with SMRs, it is making an earnest effort to contribute to the global discourse on peaceful and responsible use of nuclear energy and reinforce its commitment to a nuclear weapons-free world. SMRs are India's manifestation of its “ethical modernity” approach in present times for which the world is gradually expressing understanding.

*****

*Anubha Gupta, Research Associate, Indian Council of World Affairs, New Delhi.
Disclaimer: Views expressed are personal.

Endnotes

[i]Nolan, Christopher, dir. Oppenheimer. Universal Pictures, 2023. Accessed on April 3rd 2025

[ii][ii]Manhattan Project, U.S. government research project (1942–45) that produced the first atomic bombs.

[iii]Singh, Jaswant ‘Against Nuclear Apartheid’, Foreign Affairs, September/October 1998, Accessed at http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/54391/jaswant-singh/against-nuclear-apartheid, accessed on 3^rd April 2025.

[iv] IAEAvideo, “70^th Anniversary of Atoms of Speech” YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iuIYEtU0mwk&t=2s. Accessed on 10thApril 2025.

[v]Rebecca Johnson, “‘Do as I Say, not as I Do’: From Nuclear Non-Proliferation to Counter-Proliferation” in Waheguru Pal Singh and Ramesh Thakur (eds.), Arms Control After Iraq: Normative and Operational Challenges, Tokyo, New York, Paris: The United Nations University Press, 2006. Accessed on 14^th April 2025.

[vi] Ibid.

[vii]International Atomic Energy Agency, https://www.iaea.org/

[viii]Elisabeth Roehrlich, "The Cold War, the Developing World, and the Creation of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), 1953–1957," Cold War History 11, no. 3 (August 2011): 415–437, Available at https://doi.org/10.1080/14682745.2010.500563, Accessed on April 3^rd, 2025.

2025.

[ix]Singh, Jaswant ‘Against Nuclear Apartheid’, Foreign Affairs, September/October 1998, Available at http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/54391/jaswant-singh/against-nuclear-apartheid, Accessed on April 3 2025.

[x] Ibid

[xi]Chacko, Priya, “The Search for a Scientific Temper: Nuclear Technology and the Ambivalence of India’s Postcolonial Modernity.” Review of International Studies 37, no. 1 (2011): 185–208. Available at http://www.jstor.org/stable/23024590. Accessed on 7^th April.

[xii] Nutan Mahawar, “Remarks at the Symposium on Mine Action: Pathway to a Safer World,” ICWA, November 14 2024, Available at /show_content.php?lang=1&level=2&ls_id=12014&lid=7303 Accessed on 30^th April, 2025.

[xiii]International Atomic Energy Agency, Available at  https://www.iaea.org/topics/small-modular-reactors, Accessed on 20^th April 2025

[xiv]Lois Parshley, “The countries building miniature nuclear reactors,” BBC, 9 March2020, Available at

https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20200309-are-small-nuclear-power-plants-safe-and-efficient, Accessed on 20^th April 2025

[xv] Ibid.

[xvi]International Atomic Energy Agency, Available at https://www.iaea.org/topics/small-modular-reactors, Accessed on 20^th April 2025

[xvii]Ibid.

[xviii]“The search for safe nuclear waste storage,” BBC, June 8 2018, Available at https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20180608-the-search-for-safe-nuclear-waste-storageAccessed on 20^th April, 2025.

[xix] Ibid.

[xx]Anil Sasi, “India’s ambitions to break into the SMR value chain – the three big enablers in the Budget,” The Indian Express, February 5^th, 2025, Available at https://indianexpress.com/article/business/india-ambitions-smr-value-chain-three-big-enablers-budget-9816253/ Accessed on 20^th April, 2025

[xxi]Jacob Koshy, “Design stage of small modular nuclear reactor completed: Jitendra Singh,” The Hindu, March 13,2025https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/design-stage-of-bharat-small-modular-nuclear-reactor-complete/article69322209.ece

[xxii] Ibid.

[xxiii] Anil Sasi, “India’s ambitions to break into the SMR value chain – the three big enablers in the Budget,” The Indian Express, February 5^th, 2025, Available at https://indianexpress.com/article/business/india-ambitions-smr-value-chain-three-big-enablers-budget-9816253/ Accessed on 20^th April, 2025

[xxiv]  Press Bureau of India, “India – France Joint Statement on the visit of Shri Narendra Modi, Hon’ble Prime Minister of India to France,” PIB, Feb 12, 2025, Available at

https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=2102247#:~:text=They%20welcomed%20the%20first%20meeting,cooperation%20in%20training%20and%20education Accessed on April 12 2025.

[xxv] Jacob Koshy, “Committees Constituted to amend nuclear liability laws,” The Hindu, April 2nd, 2025. Available at https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/committees-constituted-to-amend-nuclear-liability-laws/article69404712.ece Accessed on April 15 2025

[xxvi] Ibid.

[xxvii]Editorial, “US Nuclear Reactors in India: A New Energy,” The Indian Express, April 16 2025, Available at https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/editorials/us-nuclear-reactors-in-india-a-new-energy-9925655/ Accessed on 20^th April 2025

[xxviii] Editorial, “US Nuclear Reactors in India: A New Energy,” The Indian Express, April 16 2025, Available at https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/editorials/us-nuclear-reactors-in-india-a-new-energy-9925655/ Accessed on 20^th April 2025

[xxix]Ibid