On 20 November 2023, the Iranian President Ebrahim Raisi sent letters to the leaders of 50 ‘free and independent’ countries including Russia, China, Türkiye’, Kazakhstan, South Africa, Kenya and Jordan calling for greater coordination to coerce Israel to end its crimes against Gaza.[i] Notably, Tehran has approached the countries of Asia and the global South among others, in order to garner support for the end of violence in Gaza. Under the leadership of President Raisi, focus of the Iranian foreign policy has shifted to Asia and the global South and the year 2023 has witnessed Tehran’s overtures to the countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America.
Iran’s focus on the Asian countries is not new and is part of its foreign policy trajectory devised in the post-Cold War era when Iran was politically isolated, struggling to cope with the economic impact of the war with Iraq and was looking for credible partners. However its pivot to the east with sharpened focus on the global South is a strategic endeavor, and this is the hallmark of the Raisi government.
Iran’s policy of ‘Look East’ can be understood in the context of its anti-west tendencies and quest to forge ties with the Asian powers as strong alternatives. The first decade of the Look East strategy passed with occasional hiccups of regional rivalries and the West’s influence on certain Asian countries. However, the policy gained momentum with former President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad coming to power in 2005. Increasing sanctions and consequent isolation led Iran to not only seek support of the Asian countries but also to consider the partnership potential in Africa[ii] and Latin America.[iii] His successor Hassan Rouhani made an attempt to improve Iran’s relations with the West, which fructified in signing of the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) in 2015. Unfortunately, the nuclear deal was short-lived; under the leadership of President Donald Trump, the United States of America (USA) withdrew from the deal in 2018. The resultant domestic backlash strengthened the anti-west tendencies in the foreign policy of Iran and led to the victory of the conservative candidate and current President Ebrahim Raisi in the 2021 elections.
Under the leadership of Ahmadinejad, Iran perceived the Look East Policy as a tool for breaking diplomatic isolation and resisting western pressure. On the other hand, Rouhani’s Iran shaped by the former Foreign Minister Mohammad Javad Zarif believed that Look East shall not be seen as a substitute but a complement to relations with the West.[iv] Currently under Raisi, Iran perceives Look East Policy in the backdrop of changing global order defined by the declining west and the rising east. Further, the policy is evolving from being a reaction to the west-imposed sanctions and political and economic isolation, to being a strategic move rooted in geo-political understanding.
Central Asia
Sharing historical and civilizational ties and situated in close geographic proximity, Central Asia is an important region for Iran. In the light of the increased US presence post 9/11, Iran found it pertinent to have a hold over this region. For central Asian countries, Iran is a major regional actor and a commercial partner with valuable assets including energy corridors and transport infrastructure[v] and for Iran these countries are dependable entities in its attempt to break the economic and political seclusion.
Iran’s growing closeness to Russia and China under the Raisi government and its membership to the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) signify the importance the wider region holds for Tehran. Iranian President, during his meeting with the President of Tajikistan in 2022, said that developing relations with the countries of Central Asia is one of the first priorities of the foreign policy of Iran.[vi] During his tenure of 51 months, Iran has opened a drone factory in Tajikistan[vii] and has signed a trilateral agreement to swap 1.2 to 2 billion cubic meters of natural gas from Turkmenistan to Azerbaijan via Iran.[viii]
South Asia
Secondly, Iran has strong historical ties and civilizational convergences with South Asia, and the country perceives India as a reliable partner in the region. President of Iran Ebrahim Raisi has met Prime Minister Narendra Modi on the sidelines of the SCO Summit in Uzbekistan held in September 2022 as well as the BRICS Summit held at South Africa in August 2023[ix] and the two leaders have emphasized on their commitment to realize the full potential of Chabahar Port as a connectivity hub.[x] They also had a telephonic conversation on 6 November 2023, on the ongoing Israel-Hamas conflict in the West Asian region[xi] and Iran has requested India to use all its capacity to stop Israel’s assault on Gaza.[xii]
The Defense ministers of India and Iran have discussed peace and stability in Afghanistan and the status of the International North South Transport Corridor (INSTC) on the margins of the SCO Defence ministers meeting in April 2023.[xiii] Further, the National Security Advisors of the two countries drew attention to the issue of terrorism and the humanitarian and economic situation in Afghanistan.[xiv] Iran attaches special significance to India. The Iranian President in his message to his Indian counterpart on the occasion of India’s Republic Day 2023 said that India and Iran enjoy excellent relations and will create a new page of relations in the present era with the past reserves (of diplomatic proximity).[xv]
Also, Iran considers Pakistan and Afghanistan as important neighboring countries with whom it shares border to the east and looks at both being as vital for security and stability in the neighborhood. Currently, the two countries are significant trade partners for Iran. In August 2023, Iran and Pakistan formulated a five-year plan aiming to achieve the USD 5 billion bilateral trade through free trade agreements and institutional cooperation.[xvi] Likewise, Iran and Afghanistan have signed five economic cooperation agreements related to transportation, civil aviation, mining and free trade zones in November 2023.[xvii] The common issues of concern for Iran and Pakistan consist of arms, narcotics and human trafficking across the border and the fight against terrorism, whereas their shared proximity to China and the need for connectivity and communication are the binding factors. On the other hand, the internal instability and the water dispute are irritants in the ties between Iran and Afghanistan. Iran and Afghanistan exchanged fire in May 2023 over water supply tensions in the region. Tehran and Kabul are engaged in a dispute over rights to waters of the Helmand River and Iran depends on the same for irrigation in its dry and arid southern region. The construction of dams on the Afghan side has intensified the situation in the recent years.[xviii] Nevertheless, Iran has recognized the Taliban government in Afghanistan in March 2023.[xix]
Iran looks at Sri Lanka as a market for its technical and engineering products and services and as a gateway to the South and East Asia. Being member of the Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA), Iran considers the Council of Ministers meeting of the Association as an opportunity to connect with the Indian subcontinent. Sri Lanka as the Chair country for 2023-2025, hosted the 23rd Council of Ministers of IORA meeting on 11 October 2023 and will be hosting the Leader’s Summit in Colombo in 2024 to reflect on the way forward for the IORA countries towards and beyond 2030.[xx]
Similarly, Iran hopes to extend ties with Nepal that shares old cultural ties with the Islamic Republic and is prepared to broaden its economic and technical relations with the same.[xxi] Lastly, Iran is willing to broaden its economic and technological ties with Bangladesh as the two countries share platforms like Developing-8 (D-8) and the Organisation of Islamic Countries (OIC). Also, Iran and Maldives have reaffirmed to restore diplomatic ties following the signing of Iran Saudi deal and emphasized on strengthening cooperation in trade and investment, science and technology and people-to-people ties.[xxii]
West Asia
Third, Iran is focusing on forging ties with the West Asian countries as apparent from signing of the deal with Saudi Arabia in March 2023 and its vocal support to the people of Gaza in the Hamas-Israel conflict. Iran has maintained extensive trade and commercial ties with the United Arab Emirates (UAE); consequently, some of the Emirati companies like Blue Cactus Heavy Equipment and Machinery Spare Parts Trading have been sanctioned by the US for engaging in illicit petroleum trade with Iran.[xxiii] Similarly, Iran has good ties with Qatar that has been an advocate of engaging with Tehran and de-escalating its ties with the US. During the Qatar crisis, Doha received support from Tehran and the two countries established full diplomatic relations defying the 13-point demands issued by the Quartet of Saudi Arabia, UAE, Bahrain and Egypt. In 2022, Qatari Emir visited Tehran and the two leaders discussed the possibilities of restoration of the JCPOA.
Iran also looks at maintaining close ties with Oman as the two countries have been engaged in joint development of the Duqm port and Muscat has been the repository of Iranian heavy water till May 2019 when the US ended the waiver granted for storage of the same. Iran has also been looking at the formation of a common security system for the Persian Gulf region and to that end proposed the Hormuz Peace Endeavour in September 2019. Moving beyond the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), Iran has maintained warm ties with Syria and has played an important role in survival of the Bashar Al Assad government.
Likewise, Iran-Türkiye ties are getting strengthened. During President Erdogan’s visit to Tehran in July 2022, the two countries have pledged to increase bilateral trade to USD 30 billion per year. Iran seeks to reach common ground with Türkiye on the future of Syria and on stability in South Caucasus. It is to be noted that Türkiye has publicly voiced opposition to the US sanctions on Iran. Moreover, on 22 November 2023, President Erdogan mentioned at an economic forum in Algeria that Türkiye will raise the question of Israel's possession of nuclear weapons at the UN Security Council (UNSC) and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).[xxiv] The move will inadvertently support Iran’s right to attain nuclear weapons.
East Asia
Iran is striving to maintain ties with the East Asian economies of Japan and South Korea. In February 2023, Japan provided emergency earthquake assistance to the north western part of Iran.[xxv] Japan has been a consistent supporter of the JCPOA and has urged Iran to comply with the IAEA regulations. The interests of the two countries converge in maritime security.[xxvi] Japan voiced its vision of achieving a Free and Open Indo-Pacific (FOIP) and the Iranian Foreign Minister Amir Abdullahian had emphasized that Tehran is willing to make the required effort to ensure safety of navigation.[xxvii] Within a fortnight of Raisi’s coming to power, Iran and Japan signed an agreement on Mutual Administrative Assistance and Cooperation in Custom Matters.[xxviii] Iran also looks at South Korea in a positive light—the country is an important market for Iranian oil and energy products. The US and Iran had concluded a prisoner swap deal in September 2023 as the former allowed the transfer of USD 6 billion in Iranian funds from South Korea to Qatar.[xxix] However, it is to be noted that on grounds of suspicion over Iran’s role in the Hamas-Israel conflict, US and Qatar blocked Iran from accessing the funds in October 2023[xxx] and the US white House passed the bill to permanently freeze the Iranian funds on 30 November 2023.[xxxi]
Africa
Along with the Asian countries, the Raisi government is focusing on extending and fostering ties with the countries of Africa and Latin America. In July 2023, President Raisi visited Kenya, Uganda and Zimbabwe in Africa with the hope of promoting economic diplomacy through the signing of 21 agreements and to endorsing South-South cooperation. Africa is a land of opportunity for Iran with its ample mineral resources, young demography and investment prospects. In March 2023, the Islamic Republic convened the first Iran-West Africa Economic Summit and signed contracts worth one billion in sectors such as ship building, automobiles and medical equipment. Under President Ahmadinejad, Iran focused on soft diplomacy with the countries of west Africa like the Ivory coast, Liberia and Cameroon, however the current Raisi government understands the significance of the countries situated in East Africa as well.[xxxii] They are strategically located near the Gulf of Aden and Bab al Mandeb Strait and are significant for the Iran which aims to control the trade and transport through the international maritime shipping lanes.[xxxiii] Kenya, Zimbabwe and Uganda have been supportive of Iran at various United Nations forums while the latter has been the extraterritorial food production site for Iran since 2008.[xxxiv] Iran is setting up a manufacturing unit for its vehicles in the port city of Mombasa, Kenya.[xxxv] More importantly, Iran is looking at the African countries as markets for its drone industry—the Iranian President attended the 2023 Drone Exhibition in Kenya in which Iran showcased drones named Pelikan and Dorna for agricultural processes like spray of pesticides and monitoring of crops.[xxxvi] Also, the Continent is important for the Islamic Republic that had earlier received support from the African Union in context of the JCPOA. Expressing concern on the US withdrawal from the JCPOA in 2018, the Union had called on the other JCPOA signatories to demonstrate renewed commitment to the deal.[xxxvii]
Latin America
Iran is focusing on fostering strong ties with the Latin American countries that share anti US sentiments with Tehran. In June 2023, during an official trip to Venezuela, Nicaragua and Cuba, the Iranian President Raisi said that Iran and Venezuela share a strategic partnership based on ‘common interests, common vision and common enemies’. In response, the Venezuelan President Nicolas Maduro emphasized that Iran is playing a major role as one of the most important emerging powers in the new world and the two nations will be invincible together. The two countries had signed a 20-year cooperation plan during Maduro’s visit to Tehran in June 2022. Iran has signed a number of deals with these countries pertaining to energy, maritime transport, agriculture, medicine, information technology, insurance and cultural ties.[xxxviii]
The fact that Iran has signed six cooperation agreements with Cuba including one on comprehensive political cooperation and that it hosted the Cuban President on 04 December 2023 after a gap of 22 years shows the strategic significance of these countries for Iran.[xxxix] President Raisi’s statement in Nicaragua about the rising of the countries in Latin America and West Asia while the power of America is declining,[xl] signifies Tehran’s urgency to connect with these countries at an ideological level and pose a deterrent to the US in its own backyard. Iran’s quest to increase its presence in Latin America began after the Islamic revolution but in the recent times President Ahmadinejad’s government gave it a momentum by extending hands to the left dominated countries including Bolivia, Brazil, Cuba, Ecuador, Nicaragua and Venezuela and the Raisi government is carrying it forward with vigor and strategic alliances. These countries welcome Iran as an alternative to the US while Iran perceives them as significant for breaking the economic and political isolation through technological cooperation.
Conclusion:
In a nutshell, breaking away from the tendency to react and respond, Iran under the leadership of President Raisi is cautiously and confidently pursuing a foreign policy rooted in strategic planning, and Asia and the global South form the core as well as the periphery of this endeavor.
*****
* Dr. Lakshmi Priya, Research Fellow, Indian Council of World Affairs, New Delhi.
Disclaimer: Views expressed are personal.
Endnotes
[i] Raisi calls for Upping Pressure on Israel in Letter to 50 World Leaders, Tehran Times, November 20, 2023, available at https://www.tehrantimes.com/news/491618/Raisi-calls-for-upping-pressure-on-Israel-in-letter-to-50-world (Accessed November 21, 2023).
[ii] Amin Naeni, Iran and Africa: Why Tehran will Boost its Ties with the Continent under the Raisi Administration, Middle East Institute, August 11, 2021, available at https://www.mei.edu/publications/iran-and-africa-why-tehran-will-boost-its-ties-continent-under-raisi-administration (Accessed November 21, 2023).
[iii] Farideh Farhi, Iran and Latin America: Threat or ‘Axis of Annoyance’?, Wilson Center, July 10, 2008, available at https://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/iran-latin-america-threat-or-axis-annoyance (Accessed November 20, 2023).
[iv] Hamidreza Azizi, Iran’s Look East Strategy: Continuity and Change under Raisi, Middle East Council on Global Affairs, Issue Brief, September 2023, available at https://mecouncil.org/publication/irans-look-east-strategy-continuity-and-change-under-raisi/ (Accessed November 21, 2023).
[v] Silvia Boltuc, Iran’s interests and strategy in Central Asia, Special Eurasia, Geopolitical Report, Volume 23 Issue 1, available at https://www.specialeurasia.com/2022/09/07/iran-interests-central-asia/ (Accessed November 22, 2023).
[vi] Ayatollah Raisi in the meeting with the President of Tajikistan: Iran's policy of developing ties with its neighbours to continue, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Islamic Republic of Iran, September 15, 2022, available at https://en.mfa.ir/portal/newsview/693396/Irans-policy-of-developing-ties-with-its-neighbours-to-continue (Accessed November 21, 2023).
[vii] Seth J Frantzman, What does Iran’s drive for Central Asia partnerships look like? – analysis, The Jerusalem Post, July 02, 2022, available at https://www.jpost.com/international/article-710999 (Accessed November 21, 2023).
[viii] Iranian President Underlines Expansion of Ties with Central Asian States, Fars News Agency, March 16, 2022, available at https://farsnews.ir/en/news/14001225000436/Iranian-Presiden-Underlines-Expansin-f-Ties-wih-Cenral-Asian-Saes (Accessed November 21, 2023).
[ix] India-Iran Relations, Embassy of India, Tehran, available at https://www.indianembassytehran.gov.in/eoithr_pages/MTY, (Accessed November 23, 2023).
[x] Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi speaks with H.E. Dr Seyyed Ebrahim Raisi, President of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Press Information Bureau, August 18, 2023 available at https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1950188 (Accessed November 21, 2023).
[xi] Prime Minister speaks with the President of Iran, Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, November 06, 2023, available at https://www.mea.gov.in/press-releases.htm?dtl/37240/Prime_Minister_speaks_with_the_President_of_Iran (Accessed November 24, 2023).
[xii] Iran asks India to "Use all its Capacities" to End Israel's Assault on Gaza, NDTV, November 07, 2023, available at https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/india-must-use-all-its-capacities-to-end-war-in-gaza-iran-president-to-pm-modi-4552156 (Accessed November 21, 2023).
[xiii] Raksha Mantri holds bilateral meeting with his Iranian counterpart on the sidelines of SCO Defence Ministers’ Meeting in New Delhi, Press Information Bureau, April 27, 2023, available at https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1920303 (Accessed November 21, 2023).
[xiv] S. D. Pradhan, Doval visits Iran: India-Iran ties moving to a new level, The Times of India, May 04, 2023, available at https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/ChanakyaCode/doval-visits-iran-india-iran-ties-moving-to-a-new-level/ (Accessed November 25, 2023).
[xv] Seyyed Ebrahim Raisi, President of the Islamic Republic of Iran, In separate messages to the President and Prime Minister of India; Ayatollah Raisi felicitates India on National Day, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Islamic Republic of Iran, January 26, 2022, available at https://en.mfa.ir/portal/newsview/667853/Ayatollah-Raisi-felicitates-India-on-National-Day (Accessed November 20, 2023).
[xvi]Alperen Aktas and Esra Tekin, Pakistan, Iran to Boost Relations with 5-year Trade Cooperation Plan, Anadolu Agency Broadcasting System, August 03, 2023, available at https://www.aa.com.tr/en/world/pakistan-iran-to-boost-relations-with-5-year-trade-cooperation-plan/2960589 (Accessed December 06, 2023).
[xvii] Alperen Aktas, Iran, Afghanistan Sign 5 Key Economic Agreements, Anadolu Agency Broadcasting System, November 10, 2023, available at https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/iran-afghanistan-sign-5-key-economic-agreements/3049189 (Accessed December 06, 2023).
[xviii]Bahar Makooi, Iran and Afghanistan Dispute Helmand Water Rights as Climate Change Deepens Crisis, France 24, June 10, 2023, available at https://www.france24.com/en/asia-pacific/20230610-iran-and-afghanistan-dispute-helmand-water-rights-as-climate-change-deepens-crisis (Accessed December 06, 2023).
[xix]Aaron Y Zelin, Iran Formalizes Ties with the Taliban, The Washington Institute for Near East Studies, March 03, 2023, available at https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/iran-formalizes-ties-taliban (Accessed December 06, 2023).
[xx] Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA) – the 23rd Meeting of the Council of Ministers, the Colombo Communiqué, 2023, Department of International Relations and Cooperation, Republic of South Africa, 11 October 2023 available at https://www.dirco.gov.za/indian-ocean-rim-association-iora-the-23rd-meeting-of-the-council-of-ministers-the-colombo-communique-2023-11-october-2023/#:~:text=Indian%20Ocean%20Rim%20Association%20(IORA,2023%2C%2011%20October%202023%20%E2%80%93%20DIRCO (Accessed November 23, 2023).
[xxi] Nepal's president calls for full-scale ties with Iran, Islamic Republic News Agency, June 4, 2019, available at https://en.irna.ir/news/83340834/Nepal-s-president-calls-for-full-scale-ties-with-Iran (Accessed November 21, 2023).
[xxii] Joint Press Release to reaffirm the decision to restore diplomatic ties between the Islamic Republic of Iran and the Republic of Maldives, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Islamic Republic of Iran, September 23, 2023 available at https://en.mfa.ir/portal/newsview/730043/Joint-Press-Release-to-reaffirm-the-decision-to-restore-diplomatic-ties-between-the-Islamic-Republic-of-Iran-and-the-Republic-of-Maldives (Accessed November 30, 2023).
[xxiii] Fatima Hussein, US sanctions UAE, Hong Kong firms that ship Iranian oil, AP News, August 01, 2022, available at https://apnews.com/article/biden-iran-asia-donald-trump-3b8efe23b60df46ebf8ead0ac5570f08 (Accessed November 21, 2023).
[xxiv] Turkey to ask UNSC, IAEA to verify whether Israel has nuclear weapons — Erdogan, TASS Russian News Agency, November 22, 2023, available at https://tass.com/world/1709897 (Accessed November 21, 2023).
[xxv] Emergency Assistance to the Northwestern Part of Islamic Republic of Iran in Response to the Earthquake, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, Press Release, February 10, 2023 available at https://www.mofa.go.jp/press/release/press3e_000550.html (Accessed November 25, 2023).
[xxvi] Japan-Iran Summit Meeting, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, September 21, 2022, available at https://www.mofa.go.jp/me_a/me2/ir/page3e_001246.html (Accessed November 21, 2023).
[xxvii] Meeting between Foreign Minister Motegi and Dr. Amir Abdollahian, Foreign Minister-designate of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, August 23, 2021, available at https://www.mofa.go.jp/press/release/press4e_003036.html (Accessed November 22, 2023).
[xxviii] Signing of the Agreement between the Government of Japan and the Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran regarding Mutual Administrative Assistance and Cooperation in Customs Matters, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, August 22, 2021 available at https://www.mofa.go.jp/me_a/me2/ir/page1e_000354.html (Accessed November 20, 2023).
[xxix] Humeira Pamuk and Arshad Mohammed, US Allows $6 Billion Transfer as part of Iran Prisoner Swap, Reuters, September 12, 2023, available at https://www.reuters.com/world/us-allows-6-billion-transfer-part-iran-prisoner-swap-2023-09-11/ (Accessed November 21, 2023).
[xxx]Monica Alba, Elyse Perlmutter-Gumbiner and Katherine Doyle, U.S. and Qatar Agree not to Release Iran's $6B, NBC News, October 12, 2023, available at https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/white-house/us-qatar-agree-not-release-iran-6-billion-prisoner-swap-rcna120135 (Accessed November 21, 2023).
[xxxi] Brad Dress, House passes bill to permanently freeze $6B in Iranian funds, The Hill, November 30, 2023, available at https://thehill.com/policy/defense/4335952-house-passes-bill-to-permanently-freeze-6b-in-iranian-funds/#:~:text=The%20House%20on%20Thursday%20passed,release%20of%20five%20American%20detainees. (Accessed December 06, 2023).
[xxxii] Gauri Narayan Mathur, Iran’s Outreach to Africa: Quest for Influence, Indian Council of World Affairs, September 21, 2023, available at https://www.icwa.in/show_content.php?lang=1&level=3&ls_id=9950&lid=6356#_edn9 (Accessed November 21, 2023).
[xxxiii] Iranian Activities in East Africa Nature and Significance, The Meir Amit Intelligence and Terrorism Information Centre, May 08, 2023, available at https://www.terrorism-info.org.il/app/uploads/2023/05/E_087_23.pdf (Accessed November 22, 2023).
[xxxiv] Eric Lob, Raisi Goes to Africa in Search of Allies for Iran, Stimson Centre, July 26, 2023, available at https://www.stimson.org/2023/raisi-goes-to-africa-in-search-of-allies-for-iran/ (Accessed November 22, 2023).
[xxxv] Iran’s leader, visiting Africa, attacks Western support for homosexuality as among ‘dirtiest’ things, The Hindu, July 12, 2023, available at https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/irans-president-ebrahim-raisi-begins-a-rare-visit-to-africa-to-promote-economic-diplomacy/article67070829.ece (Accessed November 30, 2023).
[xxxvi] Iranian-made Drones in Africa to Assist Agricultural Progress, Islamic Republic News Agency, July 12, 2023, available at https://en.irna.ir/news/85167776/Iranian-made-drones-in-Africa-to-assist-agricultural-progress (Accessed November 21, 2023).
[xxxvii] Statement of the Chairperson of the African Union Commission on the United States Unilateral Withdrawal from the Iran Nuclear Deal, African Union, May 10, 2018, available at https://au.int/sw/node/34280 (Accessed November 30, 2023).
[xxxviii] Maziar Motamedi, Iran’s Raisi Secures Array of Agreements on Latin American Tour, Al Jazeera, June 16, 2023, available at https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/6/16/iran-president-secures-array-of-agreements-on-latin-american-tour (Accessed November 23, 2023).
[xxxix] Raisi Mobilizes Support for Iran in Latin America, The Iran Primer, United States Institute of Peace, June 22, 2023, available at https://iranprimer.usip.org/blog/2023/jun/22/raisi-mobilizes-support-iran-latin-america (Accessed November 21, 2023).
[xl] Ibid.