Indian Council of World Affairs

Introduction

1.  As a person who is actively involved in the current Myanmar peace process and serves as the Secretary of the National Solidarity and Peacemaking Negotiation Committee (NSPNC), this article is written with intent to provide an understanding of the steps taken in the Myanmar’s peace journey, the current implementation and future processes, as well as the aspirations for peace in Myanmar.

2.  Peace researcher Johan Galtung defines peace as not only freedom from violence but also the resolution of other social problems for justice among people and promoting the full development of a country. Peace is a way for people to be free from war and fear, and to resolve differences between groups and communities, and to live in harmony with one another. Peace is also the fruit of the cessation of war. Peace is essential for every country and only peace can lead to national development, so peace is crucial.

Peace efforts by successive governments

3.  After Myanmar gained independence from colonial rule, successive governments have made efforts to achieve peace by establishing policies and programs. Despite these efforts, peace remains distant for many reasons.

4.  After Myanmar gained independence in 1948, various domestic insurgent organizations emerged and began armed and covert insurgencies. While the Burmese military was strengthening and suppressing internal insurgencies, ethnic armed groups also escalated their violence. In 1948, the Karen National Liberation Army (KNLA) began its insurgency, and in 1958, insurgent organizations such as the Shan State Liberation Army (SSA) and the Shan State Revolutionary Army (SURA) emerged. In 1959, the Karen National Union (KNU), Karenni National Progressive Party, New Mon State Party, and Chin Nationalist Front formed the National Democratic Unity Army (NDUA). The Kachin Independence Army (KIA) was formed in 1961. In 1970, the KNU moved to the Bago Yoma region in central Burma and, in collaboration with the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Burma, increased its insurgency activities.

5.  The Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League (AFPFL) government issued an amnesty decree from 1955 to 1956. The government's position was announced in response to the three points that the Chairman of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Burma, Than Htun, wanted to discuss for internal peace, as a peace offer to the communists in hiding. Prime Minister U Nu promulgated the Freedom of Education Act in 1958 by presidential decree. Under the Union government's internal peace plan, the People's Comrades Organization, the Pa-O National Liberation Front, and the Mon People's Front surrendered. The great architect of peace, Thakin Kodaw Hmaing, arranged for peace talks with the Communist Party of Burma, but it was unsuccessful due to disagreements.

6.  During the Caretaker Government (1958-1962), Caretaker Government leader General Ne Win said that a political solution would be found to achieve internal peace. Then, they worked to restore peace and stability in the community by uncovering and confiscating weapons caches across the country, dismantling ransom and robbery gangs around Yangon and Insein, disbanding dormitory units established by the ruling AFPLF factions, and integrating some of them into the Tatmadaw and military police. During the Caretaker Government, the armed communists in the jungle were cut off from the regions and districts due to the military offensive, and the members of the central committee and the regional committees lost confidence in the party leadership and became exposed. During the caretaker government, the insurgency decreased significantly due to the nationwide offensives against the insurgents.

7.  During the Revolutionary Council government (1962-1974), a general amnesty was declared in 1963 to invite insurgents who were practicing an armed path to join state-building activities with a new spirit. Under that decree, approximately 12,000 prisoners were granted amnesty. Many insurgents surrendered and entered the legal system, but some organizations, such as the Communist Party of Burma, refused to accept the general amnesty and called for dialogue. Therefore, the Revolutionary Council government offered peace talks and met with the insurgent organizations in peace talks, but the internal insurgency did not end completely and lasting peace was not achieved, and the insurgents continued to wage armed rebellion.

8.  After the Burma Socialist Programme Party government (1974-1988) took office, the government continued its efforts to achieve internal peace. The Communist Party of Burma offered peace talks in 1980, and negotiations with the government continued until 1981. However, the talks failed to materialize as the Communist Party of Burma demanded recognition as a separate armed group and recognition of their autonomous region based on the border region. In 1980, peace talks were held with the Kachin Independence Organization (KIO), but the KIA’s demand for a separate state for self-government and administration failed without agreement, as it was not permissible under the country’s constitution and for the sake of national unity and national sustainability.

9.  After the State Law and Order Restoration Council took power on September 18, 1988, it established and implemented (12) political, economic and social objectives along with its three core responsibilities. The government invited ethnic armed organizations fighting against the state to return to the legal framework. A plan was developed to transform ethnic armed organizations that had exchanged arms for peace into border guard forces and militia groups, as needed, allowing them to bear arms in accordance with the constitution. Between 1989 and 2007, 17 major ethnic armed organizations and 23 minor groups, realizing the genuine goodwill of the state and the Tatmadaw, entered the legal framework and achieved peace.

10.  In Myanmar’s history, elections were held under the 1947 Constitution and the 1974 Constitution. On May 9, 2008, the Constitution of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar was ratified by a nationwide referendum. The Union Election Commission was established on March 11, 2010, to conduct elections in accordance with the Constitution (2008). On November 7, 2010, a multi-party democratic general election was held, and the Union Solidarity and Development Party won 388 out of 493 seats in the two houses of parliament and formed a government for the first term of parliament, led by President U Thein Sein.

1^st Democratic Government and the NCA

11.  During the First Democratic Government, President U Thein Sein invited ethnic armed organizations to peace talks in a statement (1/2011) on August 18, 2011. In order to conduct effective peace talks with ethnic armed organizations, the Union-level Peace Negotiation Team, the State-level Peace Negotiation Team, the Union Peacemaking Central Committee, the Union Peacemaking Committee, and the Myanmar Peace and Reconstruction Center were established. In addition, a national road map was established, consisting of three stages to achieve lasting peace. In addition, the Tatmadaw also issued six peace policies.

12.  While the government was making efforts for peace, ethnic armed organizations also formed groups to participate in the Myanmar peace process. On November 2, 2013, the National Ceasefire Coordination Team (NCCT) was formed with 13 members at the National Conference of Ethnic Armed Organizations held in Laiza, Kachin State, and on June 2, 2015, the Senior Delegation (SD) was formed with 15 members at the Law Khila Conference held from June 2 to 9, 2015.

13.  During the first democratic government led by President U Thein Sein, on 15 October 2015, the Government and eight ethnic armed groups successfully signed the Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement (NCA) in the presence of (21) domestic witnesses and (6) international witnesses, including the Special Representative of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China for Asian Affairs, H.E. Mr. Sun Guoxiang, National Security Advisor of the Republic of India, H.E. Shri Ajit Kumar Doval, Special Representative of the Government of Japan for National Reconciliation in Myanmar, H.E. Mr. Yohei SASAKAWA, Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Thailand, E. Mr. Apichart Chinwanno, Ambassador of the European Union to Myanmar, H.E. Mr. Roland Kobia, Special Adviser of the UN Secretary-General on Myanmar, H.E. Mr. Vijay Nambiar. From the date of the initial call for peace until the finalization of the NCA on August 7, 2015, it took 1,450 days, during which no less than 5,000 small meetings and negotiations were held. The NCA is the highest-level peace agreement reached between the government, the military and ethnic armed organizations since independence.

14.  To continue implementing the provisions of the NCA, a Joint Implementation Coordination Meeting (JICM) was held, the Union Peace Dialogue Joint Committee (UPDJC) was formed to hold political dialogues, and the Joint Ceasefire Monitoring Committee (JMC) was formed to monitor the ceasefire. To jointly coordinate and implement military matters outlined in the NCA, three levels were established: Union level (JMC-U), State level (JMC-S), and Regional level (JMC-L).

15.  The Union Peace Conference was held from January 12 to 16, 2016 at MICC-2 in Nay Pyi Taw. The five sectors agreed to be discussed in the framework of the political dialogue.

2^nd Democratic Government

16.  A multi-party democratic general election was held on November 8, 2015. In the three houses of parliament, 886 members were elected from the National League for Democracy, 117 from the Union Solidarity and Development Party, 40 from the Shan National League for Democracy, 45 from the Rakhine National Party, 1 from the National Unity Party, and 56 from other parties. The NLD was able to form a government and gain power in the second term of the parliament. During the Second Democratic Government, the New Mon State Party (NMSP) and the Lahu Democratic Union (LDU) signed the NCA, and so the total number of 10 EAOs that have signed the NCA.

17.  The first session of the Union Peace Conference - (21) Century Panglong was held from August 31 to September 3, 2016 at MICC-2 in Nay Pyi Taw. The government, parliament, military, ethnic armed organizations, political parties, ethnic representative groups, and interested parties attended and submitted 72 proposals and some policy documents on their positions.

18.  The Union Peace Conference - (21) Century Panglong Second Session was held from 24 to 29 May 2017 at MICC-2 in Nay Pyi Taw. A total of (37) agreements were reached, including (12) agreements in the political sector, (11) agreements in the economic sector, (4) agreements in the social sector, and (10) agreements in the land and environment sector. These 37 agreements were signed as Part (1) of the Union Agreement, which was recorded as the first federal principle agreements in Myanmar’s political history.

19.  The third session of the Union Peace Conference - (21) Century Panglong was held at MICC-2 in Nay Pyi Taw from 11 to 16 July 2018 and resulted in the signing of Part 2 of the Union Agreement, which includes (4) basic agreements in the political sector, (1) basic agreement in the economic sector, (7) basic agreements in the social sector, and (2) basic agreements in the land and environment sector, totaling 14 agreements.

20.  The Fourth Session of the Union Peace Conference - (21) Century Panglong was held from 19 to 21 July 2020 at MICC-2 in Nay Pyi Taw and resulted in a total of 21 agreements, including (15) Framework Agreements on the Implementation of the NCA, (5) Guiding Principles on Union Building Based on Democracy and Federalism, and (2020) Phased Action Plans and Phased Implementations (Table 1). The Union Agreement was signed as Part (3) of the Union Agreement.

21.  During the Second Democratic Government, the priority given to constitutional amendments rather than continuing to implement peace has increased concerns among the EAOs that signed the NCA and slowed down the peace process. In parliament, the majority of the people's representatives who have taken legislative responsibilities have repealed important laws related to national security and the rule of law, and have taken action by winning votes in the Union Parliament on regional and state issues, which has led to a decline in the support of the ethnic people and a decrease in their trust in the government.

22.  In the 2020 multi-party democratic general election, illegal practices such as inflated voter lists, illegal inclusion of unauthorized persons on the voter list, illegal voting with extra ballots and illegal advance voting in neighborhoods and villages resulted in over 11 million voter fraud cases. The Tatmadaw repeatedly attempted to mediate the vote rigging issue, but its requests for mediation were rejected until midnight on January 31, 2021. In light of the political tensions caused by the vote-rigging, a state of emergency was declared and the Tatmadaw assumed state duties in accordance with the Constitution (2008). 

Peace Activities Under the State Administration Council

23.  In order to continuously implement the peace process, the State Administration Council has set the five priorities: “Priority will be given to achieving peace as the essence of the State and stabilizing the results of the peace process in alignment with the agreements in the Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement (NCA) to extent possible.” In the political affairs, “To prioritize the arraignment of enduring peace for the entire nation in alignment with the Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement (NCA),” and the NCA is being implemented with great care.

24.  The State Administration Council established three peace committees on 17- 2-2021, namely the National Solidarity and Peacemaking Central Committee (NSPCC), the Working Committee (NSPWC), and the Coordination Committee (NSPNC), to continue implementing the peace processes that have been carried out previously, the previous agreements with ethnic armed organizations, and the peace processes that are currently being discussed with them. These committees aim to effectively and successfully implement the national unity and peacemaking processes.

25.  The Chairman of the State Administration Council delivered a speech on peace to the ethnic armed groups and the people on 22-4-2022, designating 2022 as the Year of Peace and inviting them to meet with the leaders of the ethnic armed groups in person and have honest and open discussions to effectively implement peace issues. In response to the peace invitation, a total of 10 ethnic armed groups, including the 7 NCA signatories, namely the Arakan Liberation Party (ALP), the Democratic Karen Benevolent Army (DKBA), the Karen National Union/Karen National Liberation Army-Peace Council (KNU/KNLA-PC), the Lahu Democratic Union (LDU), the New Mon State Party (NMSP), the Pa-O National Liberation Organization (PNLO), the Restoration Council of Shan State (RCSS), and the 3 NCA non-signatories, namely the United Wa State Party (UWSP), the National Democratic Alliance Army-Mong La (NDAA), and the Shan State Progressive Party (SSPP), came to Nay Pyi Taw to hold peace talks.

26.  In the meetings and discussions with 10 ethnic armed groups since May 2022, the demands of the ethnic armed groups, issues of amending the fundamental articles of the 2008 Constitution, and what is truly necessary, possible, and appropriate for the region and the country were discussed and negotiated openly and comprehensively, and the following four common agreements were reached, as well as agreements to amend and supplement important articles of the Constitution:

1. Joint implementation to strengthen the multi-party democratic political system.
2. Building a Union based on democracy and federalism, which are the desired goals of the entire ethnic people.
3. Joint implementation for the peace and development of the Union.
4. Cooperation for the rule of law, regional stability, and free and fair multi-party democratic elections.

27.  The National Solidarity and Peacemaking Coordinating Committee (NSPNC) which is the peace dialogue mechanism has been continuously engaging with relevant dialogue partners through informal meetings, virtual meetings, and formal meetings. During the tenure of the State Administration Council from February 2021 to February 2025, it held (89) meetings with ethnic armed organizations that have signed the NCA, (25) meetings with ethnic armed organizations that have not signed the NCA, (22) meetings with political parties, and (13) peacebuilding organizations, for a total of (149) meetings. Informal meetings and discussions are being held with ambassadors, chargés d'affaires, officials from international embassies in Myanmar, UN and EU organizations, and international individuals and organizations interested in Myanmar's peace process. 

Cooperation with international organizations

28.  NSPNC is coordinating with the relevant regional commands and state governments to ensure that humanitarian assistance reaches conflict- affected areas and the local population, with the assistance of UN agencies, the Japan-based Nippon Foundation, and the ASEAN Coordination Centre for Humanitarian Assistance on Disaster Management (AHA Centre), under the umbrella of Technical Secretariat Center of Joint Ceasefire Monitoring Committee (JMC-TSC), in order to facilitate the return to normalcy of the peace process. Through this coordination, humanitarian assistance was provided to the local people in real need in townships in Kayah State, Karen State, Chin State, Mon State, Rakhine State, Southern Shan State, Sagaing Region, Tanintharyi Region, Bago Region, and Magway Region. 

Violent acts by opposing groups

29.  While the peace process was underway, on the other hand, unrest and subsequent violence began emerging from ordinary protests starting in March 2021. Eventually, the situation deteriorated into armed and violent attacks on the Government. Led by some extremist members of the NLD, they indoctrinated young people and formed terrorist groups so-called PDF. In addition to NCA-non-Signatories EAOs, some NCA-Signatories EAOs have also encouraged and provided military training to terrorist PDF groups. Those dissatisfied with the military's assumption of state power formed parallel governments in exile, such as the NUG and CRPH, and carried out various acts of violence through their PDF affiliates. In order to instill fear in the public, terrorists have brutally murdered civilians who disagree with them, accusing them of being “spies, informers, and traitors,” and based on the one-sided, extremist sectarian ideology of “anyone different from me is my enemy.” From February 1, 2021 to September 14, 2025, 868 ward administrators, 65 military veterans, 5556 civilians, 76 teachers, 17 health workers, 289 other employees, and religious persons, including 85 monks and 2 nuns, were violently murdered. In addition, PDF terrorists carried out a total of (11,253) bombings and arson attacks on non-military civilian targets, including (1,495) security checkpoints, (1,433) urban buildings, (683) educational buildings, (1,667) road and bridge explosions, and (568) towers. In addition, there have been clashes in Kachin State, Shan State (Northern), Kayin State, Rakhine State, Chin State, and the upper Sagaing Region, threatening the sovereignty of the country.

The State Administration Council's invitation for Peace Talks

30.  In order to ensure the stability of internal peace and the results of peace process, the Chairman of the State Administration Council, at special events and Union Government meetings, has always emphasized that the problems faced by society can only be solved through democratic means such as dialogue and negotiation. Demanding demands through armed violence is the wrong path, and success can only be achieved through dialogue, negotiation and political means. The door to peace is always open to resolve political issues through political means in order to end armed conflicts and create a peaceful and stable environment. Only dialogue can bring stability and improve the economic and social conditions of the people. The Tatmadaw, with a genuine desire for the development of the country, declared unilateral ceasefires (20) times from 21-12-2018 to 31-12-2022, and made efforts to build trust and peace with ethnic armed organizations.

31.  The State Administration Council government, aiming to achieve the lasting peace that the entire country has been longing for, designated 2022 as the Year of Peace, and on April 22, 2022, the Chairman of the State Administration Council personally invited all ethnic armed organizations to meet and discuss. On September 26, 2024, the State Administration Council announced through state-owned media that it would invite ethnic armed organizations, terrorist organizations, and terrorist PDF groups fighting against the state to abandon the path of armed and terrorist attacks and engage in political dialogue to resolve political issues through political means, whether through party politics or through elections, in order to work together with the people to achieve lasting peace and development.

32.  Armed conflicts remain a challenge. Ethnic armed groups need to prioritize the interests of the Union and all ethnic people over their own interests. No society would accept such a course of armed violence, and we all need to oppose it. Only dialogue can bring stability and peace and improve the socio-economic lives of the people. It is necessary to pay special attention to the losses and damages caused to the country due to armed conflict and terrorist acts. Therefore, the National Solidarity and Peacemaking Negotiation Committee always welcomes the door of peace to be opened to negotiate and hold peace talks to resolve political issues through political means. 

Dialogue Process

33.  A careful analysis of the government's invitations to peace talks and the preconditions for talks set by some opposing groups clearly shows a loss of trust between the Tatmadaw and the ethnic armed organizations. The key to returning to the path of peace is rebuilding this trust. Despite the government's invitation to come to the peace table, opposition groups view the invitation as a sign that the military is weak and are eager to continue fighting.

34.  The process of negotiation is often initiated when parties to a conflict consider that other means of resolution are impractical or impossible, or when both parties realize that a negotiated solution can be found. Particularly, once both sides recognize that neither can achieve a decisive military advantage, they are more likely to seek a negotiated solution. However, when such a situation arises, significant loss of many human resources and infrastructure have already been faced.

Myanmar and the election

35.  Since the State Administration Council assumed its responsibilities in 2021, the five-point roadmap has announced to the public which will implement during their tenure. As in the five-point roadmap, upon accomplishing the provisions of the state of emergency, free and fair multi-party democratic elections will be held in line with the 2008 Constitution, to ensure accuracy and fairness in the general election to prevent eligible voters from losing their rights, and further work will be undertaken to hand over State duties to the elected government in accordance with democratic standards.

36.  The State Administration Council is making every effort to successfully hold a fair and dignified multi-party democratic general election, free from all forms of injustice such as intimidation, coercion, arbitrary incitement, and group influence. The State Administration Council is working towards holding the election by the end of 2025. Nationwide peace and stability remain essential for conducting a free, fair, and credible general election. A significant positive move on the peace journey will undoubtedly be made by the collective efforts of the government, military, EAOs, stakeholders, and the entire public working together to end the violence and to ensure stability and peace, a critical step toward a successful general election.

Conclusion

37.  NSPNC is committed to identifying pathways for the continued implementation of Myanmar’s peace process and believe that the post-election situation will be provided a good opportunity for the Myanmar’s peace journey. Taking advantage of this opportunity, NSPNC is carefully assessing the necessary steps to develop a peace platform in order to successfully implement its target.

38.  Due to the conflicts, stability, rule of law, and security have deteriorated, forcing civilians to endure daily life filled with anxiety and fear. To overcome these crises, comprehensive efforts need to be made in various ways. In order to reduce the Myanmar's current military, political and economic conflicts, all-inclusive collaboration between the government, military, EAOs, civil service, and public is required. And all citizens must work together to drive meaningful conflict transformation and resolution processes in the country.

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